语法教案模板（共9篇）

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高中英语教学设计案例

高中英语教学案例分析 Book 6 Unit 2 Poems I.Teaching Contents 教学内容

Unit 16 Scientists at Work (SEFC Book 1B)Reading: Franklin’s Famous Kite Experiment (全日制普通中学教科书(必修)人教版高三英语(下)第二单元《诗歌》的语法部分情态动词的用法) 授课班级：
高三

2 授课时间：2013年6月2日

II.Design of Teaching Objectives 教学目标设计（三维目标） 1.Knowledge objectives 知识目标

Enable the students to know about the way to expre poibility and improbability(让学生学会表达可能性与不可能性。) (1) Enable Ss to master the usage of “may”, “might”, and “likely”.(2)Help Ss learn how to use modal verbs “may” and “might” to expre conjecture 2.Ability objective能力目标

communicate with Ss by expreing their poibility and improbability .(用表达可能性与不可能性和同学交流。) 3.Affective objectives 情感价值目标

(1)After Learning the paage, the students are expected to expre conjecture.（通过本节课的学习，让学生在遇到不情愿的情景时，能够正确表达意愿。）

(2)Enable the students to expre their ideas bravely.(让学生勇敢表达自己意愿。) III.Teaching Important Points(教学重点)

1.Explain how to use modal verbs to talk about something which happened in the past—perhaps..(解释怎样用动词谈论过去曾经发生的事情。) 2.Explain how to use modal verbs to talk about something which happened at present—perhaps..(解释怎样使用情态动词描述现在可能发生的事情。) IV.Teaching Difficult Points(教学难点)

Understand the following phrases.(正确理解下面词组的区别。) may have done

might have done

must have done V.Teaching Methods(教学方法)

1.Task-based method to make students interested in what they will learn.(任务型教学法) 2.The questioning method.(提问法) 3.The working system method.(作业法) VI.Teaching Aids:(教学辅助手段) 1.A blackboard (黑板) 2.A projector and a computer for multimedia (投影仪、多媒体) VII.Teaching procedures (教学程序) Step I Lead in (5minutes)(引入，5分钟)

教师活动：Ask Ss to work in groups and discu the question in Activity 1 of Grammar on page 57.Then give them the right answer.学生活动：Answer the teacher’s questions 设计目的：激发学生的学习兴趣，让学生主动参与。

Step II Explanation(15minutes)(说明，15分钟)

教师活动：Explain how to use modal verbs to talk about something which happened in the past—perhaps.

(1) 对过去的事情进行猜测，但把握较小时，肯定形式一般用may have done，否定形式一般用may not have done。如：

He may have gone back home, because he didn’t say he would take part in her birthday party.He may not have paid for the bill, because he had lost his job.(2) 对过去的事情进行猜测，但把握更小时，肯定形式一般用might have done，否定形式用might not have done。如：

They helped send her bat to the hospital; otherwise, she thought, the baby might have died.She might not have left home when I got to school.

(3) 对过去的事情进行猜测，并且可能性较大时，肯定形式一般用must have done，否定形式一般用can’t have done。如：

Your score is the highest; you must have studied very hard.

You can’t have seen her in her office last Friday; she’s been out of town for two weeks.学生活动：配合老师，掌握may have done， might have done ，must have done的区别设计意图：（1）激活学生已有的信息，使学生具备摄入新知识的心理定势。

（2）激发学生的学习兴趣。

Step III.Practice(10minutes)(练习，10分钟)

选用can, could, may, must, shall, should, will, would, can’t, mustn’t, needn’t或have to填空教师活动：教师用投影仪展示出下面问题：

1.There is air around us, thought we ________ see it.2.Your mother is getting better and better.You _______ worry about her.3.You _______ play football in the busy street.4.“_______ it be true ?.” “Yes.It _______ be true indeed.” 5.Tom _______ come to the party tonight, but I’m not sure.6._______ you please fetch me some water for me? 7.Young trees ________ be planted in spring.8.“Must we hand in our exercise books today?” “Yes, you ______.” “No, you ________.”

9.“May I take this magazine out of the reading-room?”

“Yes, you _______.” “No, you _______.”

10.Please speak a little louder so that I _______ hear you.学生活动：选测填空。

设计意图：考察学生对情态动词may,might,must用法的掌握。

参考答案：

Could needn’t can’t

can must

may

would

must

have to needn’t

can

can’t

can

2.multiple-choice question (10minutes)(选择题，10分钟) (1)教师活动：教师用投影仪展示出下面问题，要求小组讨论：

1.If you are not careful in the street, a car ______ hit you.

A.can

B.may

C.would

D.must 2.–May I watch TV now, mum?

-No, you _____.You _____ do your homework first.A.don’t; must

B.don’t; can’t

C.can’t; must

D.can’t; can 3.–Mr.John, we must hand in our work today, ______?

-No, you ______.But you must bring it to school tomorrow.A.needn’t we; mustn’t

B.mustn’t we; needn’t C.mustn’t you; mustn’t

D.needn’t we; needn’t

4.He isn’t in the school.I think he ______ be ill. A.can B.shall C.must 5.Children ______ play on the road or in the street.It is dangerous.A.may not

B.mustn’t

C.couldn’t

D.needn’t

6.Even the top students in our cla can’t work out this problem, so it _____be very difficult. A.may

B.must C.can D.need 7.–Can you ride a bike? -No, I _____.A.may not B.can’t C.needn’t D.mustn’t 8.–Must I return the book this morning?

-No, you _____.But you ______ return it before supper.A.needn’t; must

B.mustn’t; can C.mustn’t; may D.can’t; need 9.You ____ to go and see the doctor right now.

A.must

B.should

C.have

D.will 10.Don’t play with the knife.You ______ hurt yourself.

A.may B.should C.have to D.need 参考答案：1 A

2 B

3 C

4 B

5 D

6 A 7 B

8 D

9 C

10 C 学生活动：认真分小组讨论问题，然后向全班汇报。

设计意图：训练学生沟通合作能力。

(2)教师活动：把学生分成男女组，进行比赛，抢答形式。

1.What _____ I do for you, madam? A.may B.must

C.can D.will 2.You’re made the same mistake again.How _____ you be so carele! A.shall

B.may

C.can

D.must 3.Peter _____ come with us this afternoon, but he isn’t very sure yet.A.shall

B.may

C.can

D.must 4.Don’t worry! The news _____ be true.

A.may not

B.mustn’t

C.will not

D.needn’t 5.The traffic _____ stop when the lights are red in the street.A.can’t

B.don’t have to

C.mustn’t

D.must 6.–Look! It _____ be the new headmaster.-It _____ be him.He went to Beijing yesterday.A.can; mustn’t

B.can; can’t

C.must; can’t D.must; may 7.______ I close the window? It’s so cold here.A.Must

B.Will

C.Need

D.Shall 8.You ___ return the bike now.You can keep it till tomorrow if you like.A.can’t

B.mustn’t

C.needn’t

D.may not

9.You _____ yourself about money. A.needn’t worry B.needn’t to worry C.don’t need worry D.needn’t be worry

10.Many people want to see you._____ they wait here or outside? A.Do

B.Will

C.Need

D.Shall 11.____ I ask your name, please? A.Will B.Shall C.May D.Must 12.You _____ do it even if you don’t want to.

A.can’t

B.mustn’t

C.have to

D.needn’t 13.I _____ like someone to take me to the museum.A.will

B.would

C.shall

D.need 14.Look, what you have done! You _____ more careful.A.may be B.had to C.should be D.should 学生活动：分男女小组进行抢答回答老师提问问题。

设计意图：训练学生正当的竞争意识。

Step IV Supplements（10minutes）(补充，10分钟)

教师活动：Explain how to use modal verbs to talk about something which happened at present—perhaps.

用来表猜测的情态动词有：must, can, may等，但它们所表示可能性是不同的。

(1) 对现在的事情进行猜测，并且可能性较大时，肯定形式一般用must加动词原形，此时，must不再表示“必须”，而是表示“肯定”；
否定形式一般用can’t加动词原形，此时，

can不再表示“能够”，而是表示“肯定不„„”。如：

I saw him go out just now.He can’t be in his own room.

It must be Linda in the claroom, because she is on duty today.

(2) 对现在的事情进行猜测，但把握较小时，肯定形式一般用may加动词原形，此时，may不再表示“可以”，而是表示“可能”；
否定形式一般用may not加动词原形。如：

He may tell the truth to his father.She may not angry because she is good-tempered.(3) 对现在的事情进行猜测，但把握更小时，肯定形式一般用might加动词原形；
否定形式一般用might not加动词原形。如：

She might not be angry because she usually is very patient.He might be at home now, but I’m not sure.(4) 情态动词+动词现在进行时，表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测。如：
At this moment, our teacher must be correcting our exam papers. Doctor Wang isn’t here.He might be giving a lecture in the hall.(5) 情态动词+动词的现在完成进行时，表示对过去正在发生事情的推测。如：
Your mother must have been looking for you.

The light was on the whole night.He may have been doing his homework all the time.学生活动：学生认真听讲，做笔记。

设计意图：增加学生的知识储备。

Step V

Consolidation (5minutes)(总结，5分钟)

Ask Ss to translate the following sentences.

(1) 他们也许错过了那班飞机。

(2) 快点！他们正在机场等我们。

(3) Tom是个诚实的孩子。他今晚可能会把真相告诉他父亲。

(4) 他五年前来看过我，他也许不费劲就能找到我的住处。

Step VI Homework (2minutes）（作业，4分钟) 1.Ask Ss to review Grammar.2.Ask Ss to finish Grammar exercises in the Workbook pages 97~98. 设计意图：①帮助学生进行课堂反思，自己学到了些什么知识；

②学生收集课文中没有解决的问题，以便课后进一步讨论。

语法一：比较句 A比B 句型1：A比B+adj 中国比日本大。

中国的人口比日本的多。

三者比较：A比B+更/还（注意：不能用很、非常、真）+adj 苹果比葡萄大。

西瓜比苹果更/还大。

西瓜最大。葡萄最小。

火车比汽车快。

飞机比火车更/还快。

飞机最快。汽车最慢。

句型2：比较结果差别大小（ 1） A比B+adj+具体数字今天的温度比昨天低几度？今天的温度比昨天低5度。

麦克今年18岁玛丽比麦克大1岁。

玛丽今年19岁山本的年纪最大山本今年20岁（2） A比B+adj+一点儿/一些（差别不大）玛丽的头发比田芳的（头发）长一点儿/一些。

衣服200元：裤子190元衣服比裤子贵一点儿/一些。

（3） A比B+adj+得多/多了房子比汽车贵得多/多了。

（4） A比B+V（喜爱）+宾语哥哥比弟弟爱唱歌。

麦克比杰克喜欢唱歌。

句型4：动作的比较小明八点来学校

小芳八点一刻来学校山本八点半来学校 A比B+[动词+得]+adj A+[动词+得]+比+B+adj 小芳比山本来得早。

小芳来得比山本早。

小明比小芳来得更早。

小明来得比小芳更早。

A+（动词+宾语）+比+B+动词+得+adj 他（说汉语）比她说得好。

我（跑步）比他跑得快。

A+（动词+宾语）+动词+得+比+B +adj 他（说汉语）说得比她好。

我（跑步）跑得比他快。

否定句：A没有B·······左边比右边重。

右边没有左边重。

比较：A没有B····和A不比B····· 哥哥没有弟弟高。

（哥哥比弟弟矮）

哥哥不比弟弟高。

（哥哥和弟弟差不多高）句型5：A有/没有B+（那么、这么）+adj 妹妹有妈妈高吗？

妹妹（没）有妈妈那么高。

语法二：A跟B一样/不一样（1）“„„跟„„一样” “我的书跟你的书一样。”“这件衣服跟那件衣服一样。” （2）“„„跟„„一样＋形容词” 老师：现在，谁来说说老师手上的这两支笔哪里一样？学生：一样长。

“„„跟„„一样＋adj。”“这本跟那本书一样大。”“这件衣服和那件衣服一样贵。”等等。（ 3）“A跟B„„一样”或者“A跟B一样„„”“田芳的书10元”。“大卫的书10元”。我们说，田芳和大卫的书价格一样。（板书）“A跟B＋n。＋一样”，也可以说他们一样的是喜欢做什么，想要做什么等等（板书）“A跟B一样＋„„”那现在我们来练习一下。

1、“大卫今年21岁”。“李明今年21岁”。

2、“姐姐爱好唱歌”。“妹妹爱好唱歌”。

3、“我喜欢写书法”。“他喜欢写书法”。

（4）否定形式老师：刚才我们学习了，“什么跟什么一样”， “什么跟什么哪里一样”的说法，那大家来看看老师手上的这两支笔，他们一样吗？

学生：不一样。

老师：哪里不一样？学生：颜色。

老师：老师的笔跟你的笔颜色不一样。

现在大家看这幅图，张东和李明一样高吗？学生：不一样。

老师：谁高？学生：张东。

老师：某某，你来完成说一下。

很好。那现在呢，老师还要告诉大家，“跟„„不一样”也可以说“不跟„„一样”比如：“我不跟你一样高”。“我的鞋子不跟你的一样大” 语法二：“快” 和 “ 就” 与“了”的搭配，组成“要〃〃〃〃〃〃〃了”“快〃〃〃〃〃〃〃了”“就

要〃〃〃〃〃〃〃了”“快要〃〃〃〃〃〃〃了”，表达动作即将发生。

十一点半下课，现在十一点二十。可以说：
快下课了。

快要下课了。

就要下课了。

我们把时间带上，应该怎么说：

我们十一点半就要下课了。

不能说：我们十一点半快要下课了。

飞机十点起飞，现在九点半。可以说：

飞机要起飞了。

飞机快起飞了。

飞机马上就要起飞了。

现在是晚秋，再过一个月冬天就到了，我们可以说：
快要冬天了。加上一个时间状语“再过一个月”应该怎么说再过一个月，就要冬天了。

语法三：简单趋向补语：V+来/去句型1：V+来/去

尼玛出来一下！老师你过来一下！句型2：V+处所名词+来/去他回家去了。

我们进教室去吧。

句型3：V+来/去+事物名词；
V+事物名词+来/去他买来了一本书。

他买了一本书来。

他带来了一个照相机。

他带了一个照相机来。

山本拿去了一本书。

山本拿了一本书去。

语法三：V+住记住/拿住/站住/停住〃〃〃〃〃〃

语法四：V+过表示动作曾经在过去发生。该动作一般不持续，说话时已经停止。

句型1：V+过+宾语吃过中药看过中医去过香港没针灸过句型2：V+过+动量词（次、遍）+宾语得过三次感冒去过一次香港

句型3：否定：没+ V+过我们以前没见过。

正反疑问句：v+过+宾语+没有你以前来过中国没有？语法五：动量补语数次+动量词（次、遍、剩、趟、下、口〃〃〃〃〃〃）句型1：V+数词+动量词麻烦你跑一趟。

句型2：V+数词+动量词+事物名词他敲了一下门。

句型3：V+人称代词+数词+动量词

他找过你一次。

不说：他找过一次你。

句型4：
V+数词+动量词+人名/地名或者 V+人名/地名+数词+动量词山本以前来过一次中国。

山本以前来过中国一次。

注意：“次”和“遍” 遍强调动作由始至终的全过程。

语法六：“一·······就······”

（1）表示后一个动作紧跟着前一个动作发生。

我一下课就去看你。

他一毕业就参加工作了。

（2）表示前一个动作是条件和原因，后一个动作时结果。

中国人一听就知道你是老外。

我一感冒就咳嗽。

语法七：结果补语：在、着、好、成、坏、懂、见、完、给····

1、V+在+处所名词 表示通过动作使某人或某事处于某处

这张画我们挂在哪儿呢？就挂在这儿吧。

2、V+着 表示动作的目的达到了或有了结果。

我的护照你找着了吗？你睡着了吗？

3、V+好 表示动作完成并达到了完善、令人满意的程度。

衣服我洗好了。

昨天晚上我没睡好。

4、V+成

（1）表示动作完成，达到目的这座大楼是什么时候建成的？

教

案

课程名称

英语语法

Lecture 1 Sentence Structure

教学重点及难点：

The claification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;

The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion

教学基本内容

Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences; 2.

Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition; 3.

Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.

Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative; a statement into a question, and a active clause into a paive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.

Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases; it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1) Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2) Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation (object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be claified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1) Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2) Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative; s statement into a question; and an active clause into a paive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.

Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord

教学重点及难点：
1.

The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;

Problems of subject-verb concord.

教学基本内容

The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.

Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;

Problems of concord with expreions of quality as subject: concord with expreion of definite quality as subject, concord with expreion of indefinite quality as subject;

Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.

Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord (I) 2.1 Guiding principles

1) Grammatical concord

2) Notional concord

3) Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in -s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.

A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)

Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.

A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.

Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.

Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.

Acoustics, claics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.

Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.

Other nouns ending in –s

Calipers, compaes, flares, forceps, glaes, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, sciors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.

2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1) Collective nouns usually used as plural

People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2) Collective nouns usually used as singular

Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3) Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular

Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4) A committee, etc + plural noun

A committee / board / panel of

Lecture 3

Subject-verb Concord (II) Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expreions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord

3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by \\\"and\\\" or \\\"both …and\\\"

It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g. Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports. Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After \\\"each… and each…\\\" or \\\"every… and every…\\\", the verb is also in the singular form: e.g. Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.

The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.

each/every… he/she/they

e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well. e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.

Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to

―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…he‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?

Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.

Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.

2) Coordination by \\\"or\\\" / \\\"either…or\\\", \\\"neither…nor\\\", \\\"not only...but also\\\" Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g. My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.

Either my father or my brothers are coming.

Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.

In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.

---I can‘t swim.

----Neither can I.

--- He didn‘t like the play. ---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.

3) Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no le than; with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb (determined by the form of the subject e.g. Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.

3.2 Problems of concord with expreions of quantity as subject 1) Concord with expreion of definite quantity as subject

a) When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular; when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g. Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay. b) a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+ (

d) one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb (fml.Singular; infml.plural) e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2) Concord with expreion of indefinite quantity as subject.a) all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity + (

Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS) Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.

None of + N.+ V 1) 当none与不可数名词连用或指代不可数名词时，其谓语动词总是用单数。

e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2) 当none与复数名词连用或指代复数名词时，传统语法规定其谓语动词必须用单数。此用法得到英语教材和各类英语实体的肯定和强调。但是，实际应用中人们往往使用―概念一致‖原则，用动词的复数形式。所以，Quirk说：―用复数动词较为常见，并且，在正式用法中也为人们普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair. 唯有勇者才配得上美女。

None are so deaf as those who will not hear. 不愿听从的人是最聋的人。

no one 单独使用时只用于指人。

e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短语时，既可指人也可指物。

e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。

e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.

No one 与no-one在英语里是并存的，

目前尚未统一形式。No-one 为英国英语，而no one是美国英语

b) lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase + (

There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.

a great deal / a great many

a great (good) deal之后要加介词of才能与名词连用，而a great (good) many可以直接与名词连用。另外，a great deal of跟不可数名词连用，而a great many则与可数名词连用。

e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.

A great deal还可作形容词或副词比较级的修饰语 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可数名词也可跟可数名词，谓语动词决定于名词的单复数。

e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.

lots of 与amounts of , quantities of 不同，后两者是中心词而非修饰语。

e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.

a variety of + n.做主语时，其谓语动词决定于名词的数，也就是说，此处起作用的是概念一致原则。

e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.

a wide range of + pl.n.充当主语时，其谓语动词应用单数；
a bouquet of flowers也是用单数。

e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.

A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.

a set of + pl.n.做主语时，人们使用谓语动词的形式并不是很一致。

e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.

d) determiner + species nouns (kind/type/sort) of + noun phrase (singular countable noun/uncountable noun) +verb (singular) e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.

With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun (e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.

I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?

Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e) many a + noun phrase + verb (singular)

more than one + singular noun + singular verb

more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life. More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.

f) In \\\"an average of/a majority of + noun phrase (pl.) + verb\\\", when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form; otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town\\"s younger men are moving to the city.

A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1) Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced

by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.

But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.

e.g.What I saw was a car.

What I saw and think are no busine of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject,

when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the

subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.

3) Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause (verb) the (only) one of + plural noun + relative clause (singular verb) 4) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am; me---third person singular number e.g. It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.

5) Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g. There is a book on the desk.

There is many people in the street.

There is more grace and le carelene.

American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.

The short term and the long term loan are handled differently. 按英语惯用法，一个单数名词受前置限定时，如果此名词表示两个或两个以上的事物，根据概念一致的原则，其谓语动词用复数；
但是当此类名词受后置限制时，其谓语动词用单数。

e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.

majority

许多英美出版的语法书和惯用法都指出，majority和minority不能与不可数名词连用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)说：
―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with ma nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct; The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.

但是，Practical English Usage (1980)有一例：
e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建议按照T.Wood的观点来使用the majority of。

Majority虽然在语法上是个单数名词，但在概念上却具有复数的意义：most, almost all, many。因此一般与复数动词连用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.

The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面没有-of短语时，the majority 作主语时。如果泛指多数（与少数相对），谓语单复数均可。Eg， The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。

1．如果指整体、统一体， majority 常被看作单数。

The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。

2.如果指多数中的各个成员, majority 被看成复数。

The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的数目， majority 看成单数。

Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big (small )one..

the rest (+of noun) +verb 遵循概念一致原则，而非语法一致原则。

e.g.The rest are to wait for us. The rest needs no telling.

the + adjective 做主语：

1）当表示一类人的整体时，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 谓语动词用复数。

e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）当表示具体的人，而不是某一类人的整体，谓语动词用单数形式。

e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某种笼统的东西时，谓语动词用单数形式。

e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.

Worth + of + pl.noun , 其谓语动词形式

取决于上下文和所表达的真正意思。当充当of宾语的名词具有重要意义时，谓语动词用复数形式，当所表达的价值具有重要意义时，则谓语动词用单数形式。

e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此处重要的是香烟被盗）大约价值1000英镑的香烟被盗。

There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此处重要的是香烟的价值）在那个架子上的香烟价值大约为1000英镑

Leon 4

Noun and noun phrase

教学重点及难点：

Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.

教学基本内容

Claification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.

Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;

Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;

Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.

Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase

Teaching Contents 4.1 Claification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Claification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1) Claification of nouns a) Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b) common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C) Countable noun and uncountable noun This claification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them (*two information), have no plural forms (*informations) and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖

2) Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.

He returned last night.

A photo is taken each time this button is pushed

The general pattern of noun phrase is

(Determiner)+ (premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier) The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both. (1) Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables

a shoe store = a store that sells shoes

a car race = a race between cars

a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular. e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth

decay of teeth = tooth decay

a station for buses = a bus station

a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket

a tray for ashes = an ash tray (2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier

a.There is ambiguity here.

foreign language(s) department= department of foreign languages

(foreign language department = department of a foreign language) soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings

e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities (3) Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank

It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.

(4) When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘) Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns

Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1) Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.

Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form,

A) Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock （羚羊，麋，鱼，比目鱼，鲱鱼，驯鹿，虾，丘鹬（别名山鹬） e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.

They went catching shrimp/shrimps.

I shot two elk/elks. b) Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine （野牛 , 松鸡，鹌鹑，鲑（大麻哈鱼），猪） e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c) Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鳕，鹿，鲐鱼，真鳟）e.g.This is a deer.

Those are deer.

B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swi e.g.I am a Chinese.

There are four Chinese in the training cla.C) Quantitative nouns (hundred/thousand/million/billion) a) Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.

Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars

three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form; if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.

The firm had to pay three millions.

b) several/many/a few + singular / plural (of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times) c) dozen, score e.g.She bought three score (of) eggs.

I have been there dozens of times.

He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.

2) Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a) Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form; if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.

Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b) Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.

Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows

Sometimes material nouns are [C] to expre ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.

I‘d like to have a famous tea.

We hardly bought wine at lunch time. We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to expre ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?

How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U]; otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber

c) Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.

Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.

Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.

Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to expre ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.

a) Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a busine / a brisk busine.

I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b) If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.

e.g.She has had an education (= a good education).c) Some can have ―a/an‖ regardle of modifier.

e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is eential.

d) Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns

4.3 Partitives

They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated ma.

1) general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2) partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3) partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4) partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5) partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.

Leon 5 Genitive noun

教学重点及难点：

The differences between ‗s genitive and of genitive;

The use of independent genitive and double genitive

教学基本内容

Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as poeive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;

Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―poeive determiners‖;

Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the miing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the miing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.

Lecture 5

Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive

Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Ruian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the poeive case.

Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s

The genitive case: the inflected genitive (the –s genitive)(屈折所属格） and the periphrastic genitive (the of-genitive)（迂回所属格） e.g.the children‘s toys,

the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1) Rules of formation of the –s genitive a) adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes

b) adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements

c) adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room

d) In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective poeion, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common poeion, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems (respective);

America and England‘s problems (in common)

Coordinated genitive

1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.) 2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)

3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:

A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F

4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s) / the book(s) of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.

e) In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my clamate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f) In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds,

e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem (sibilant /z/);

Ro‘s poem

2) Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote poeion, and therefore, is traditionally called ―poeive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to poeion, as shown in the following: a) Poeive genitive,

e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s paport

b) Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application

c) Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d) Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story

e) Descriptive (Claifying) genitive (not of-genitive) e.g.a women‘s college

(=college for women/*of women) f) Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples

3) Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―poeive determiners‖, (traditionally called poeive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter

a) As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;

Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter

This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey

Claifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1) They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by poeive determiners.

2) They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.

3) They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.

4) They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a claifying genitive and the following head noun.

b) The choice of genitive

The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of- genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.

The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of- genitive is also poible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.

The four claes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of- genitive is also poible a) Personal names --- George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b) Personal nouns --- the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat

c) Collective nouns --- the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d) Higher animals

--- the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips

The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a) Geographical names --- continents: Europe‘s future --- countries: China‘s development

--- states: Minnesota‘s immigrants

--- cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply

--- universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b) Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions: ---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c) Temporal nouns --- a week‘s holiday

d) Nouns of special interest to human activity --- my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future

The use of the –s genitive and of- genitive (1) We must use the –s genitive when…

a) the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive. --- The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b) it is a claifying genitive.--- Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?

c) the –s genitive is used in some set expreions: --- a wolf in sheep‘s clothing

People don‘t get their money‘s worth.

*People don‘t get the worth of their money.

We must use the of- genitive when…

a) the noun in the of- phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives --- Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b) the definite article + -ed participle or adjective denoting a cla of people in the of- phrase structure --- the life of the poor c) the prepositional complementation in the of- phrase exprees the origin of the headword modified

--- the joy of his return (The joy derives from his return)

d) the genitive is used to expre the poeive relationship between part and whole --- the middle of the night --- the back of the claroom --- the top of the page --- the bottom of the ladder e) there are determiners before the two nouns --- their knowledge of her feeling --- this dog of the country

The difference between the –s genitive and the of- genitive (a) The –s genitive : regularity and continuity

the of- genitive : contingency of things --- my last week‘s article (每周一次的连载文章） --- my article of last week(偶尔刊登的文章） (b) The –s genitive: informal

the of- genitive: formal --- the woman next door‘s husband --- the foreign policy of China

the of- genitive: extended meaning (引申意义）and symbolic meaning (象征意义）

--- the tree‘s top （树梢）

--- the top of the tree (出类拔萃） --- the table‘s top (桌面）

--- the top of the table （上座，首席）

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1) Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a) The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved --- My car is faster than John‘s (car).

b) Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:

See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.

--- Shall we meet at his brother‘s (house).

c) Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:

St.Paul‘s (Cathedral), Queen‘s (College) St.James‘s (Palace) The noun: church, school, public buildings --- He lives near St.Paul‘s (Cathedral) in London.

d) Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms --- I buy my meat at Johnson‘s (shop).

2) Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.--- a friend of my father‘s 1) The use of the double genitive a) Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖ --- This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)

b.indefinite, definite, personal --- a friend of the doctor‘s( *the cover of a book‘s) Attention to some points a) Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure --- That child of his sister‘s is very clever.--- That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.

a boy of a girl 一般的of短语用来修饰或限制前面的名词的，但是，在此处：限定词+名词1+of + a/an + 名词2，of短语与前面的名词构成同位关系，而且名词2是概念的中心，of短语是对名词2进行修饰的，就像一个形容词：

an angel of a wife = an angelic wife; the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一个男孩气的女孩子 *一个女孩气的男孩 a palace of a house 宫殿般的房子

a great elephant of a woman 一个庞大如象的女人

此结构的特点是：名词2前必须使用不定冠词，而名词1前可用任何限定词(a, this, that, her, your) e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主

that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥猪路易十八

this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house

b) Difference between double genitive and of phrase --- He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them) --- He is a friend of my father.( in good terms) A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.

A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c) The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive--- the picture that one keeps The of phrase--- the picture of one‘s own --- This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s --- This is a portrait of Mr.Black d) The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment,

--- a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William --- a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?

2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind. 5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.

1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s

2.a lady‘s or (a) gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T

Leon 6 Determiners (I)

教学重点及难点：

1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.

2.A comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.

教学基本内容

Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three claes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;

Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclaes of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;

A comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.

Determiners, as a cla of words, include: article (definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), poeive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns

The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three claes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns. These tree claes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three claes of nouns

Determiners such as poeive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three claes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many, (a) few, several, these, those, a (great) number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers

(a) few words Several girls

these / those tourists A number of men

many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a (little) bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a) little, much, le ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise (a) little courage A bit of fun

a large amount of money Le oil

(the) least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job

this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies

enough bread More eays

more time Most people

most work This cla of determiners may also include le and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Le and le people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of le and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2) Collocations between determiners

As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclaes: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article; demonstrative determiner; poeive determiners; genitive nouns; some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough; what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.

Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners. Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive. They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc; what, such (a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers. Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase. This subcla includes: cardinal numerals; ordinal numerals; next, another ,etc; many much, (a_ few, (a) little, fewer, (the) fewest, le (the) least, more, most; several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclaes of determiners

When a noun phrase contains all three subclaes of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclaed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:

Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people

―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3) A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of

Leon 7 Determiners (II)--Articles

教学重点及难点：

Articles in use with different claes of nouns;

Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles

教学基本内容

Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.

Articles in use with different claes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;

Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.

Lecture 7 Determiners (ii) --- articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article--- the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles --- the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discuing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a cla of people of things. All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a cla as a whole.

In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun. This is especially common in giving definitions. In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner. This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a cla of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the cla.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.

Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expreed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.

Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖. When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference. Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.

Leon 8 & 9 Pronouns (I, II)

教学重点及难点：

1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case; 2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.

教学基本内容

Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any- compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;

Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;

Poeive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;

Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.

Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person

Pronouns are a varied closed-cla words with nominal function. English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:

1.personal pronouns 2.poeive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, poeive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.

The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.

1) Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:

everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody,

take the singular form (grammatical) ---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody: ---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular ---Everything is ready, isn‘t?

2) Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent (notional concord) ---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.

3) Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent (notional concord) ---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discued the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.

4) Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent

The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;

after the verb--- singular form ---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine (man), feminine (woman), neutral (book) and common (student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.

1) Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent ---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2) Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic

reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.

---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.

---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form) --- When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.--- When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.) In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.--- The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.

(2) Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT: --- The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT: ---Watch out! The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.

3) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its) ---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2) Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.( car, ship) ---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.

(3) When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.--- The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.--- The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death ---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.--- Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.

(4) Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral: ---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used: ---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.

8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.

If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.

2) Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.

Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.

When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.

If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.--- How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more poible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.--- He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…

2) Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, poeive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or acro sentences.--- When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.--- John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.

Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric) ---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric) ---Mary bought a new dre, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dre, but Mary didn‘t like it.

3) Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much; this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.--- Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.

As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.--- ―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖

―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then profees to be your friend.

Leon 10 Verb and verb phrase

教学重点及难点：

1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;

2.The claifications and usage of some phrasal verbs

教学基本内容

Claification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;

A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and paive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.

The claifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.

Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Claification of verbs (I) 10.2 Claification of verbs (II) 10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood

10.1 Claification of verbs (I) 1) Main verbs and auxiliaries

According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two claes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only; this is called a simple verb phrase.

A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries; this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.

Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a) Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.

Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progreive aspect or the expreive voice.

Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to expre negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help expre the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progreive aspect.b) Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.

They expre modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c) Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and expre the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.

2) Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a) Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.

some by an object and an object complement; some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b) Intransitive verbs do not require an object.

c) Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3) Dynamic and stative verbs a) Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclaified into three categories:

durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.

b) Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progreive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be claified into four categories.

The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.

The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.

The fourth subcla includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as aume, believe, consider, detest, wish.

Stative verbs are not used in progreive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.

e.g.He is being foolish (=is acting foolishly).

We‘re having a wonderful time (= are enjoying ourselves).

The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progreive.e.g.He resembles his father.

He is resembling his father (= is becoming more and more like his father) as the years go by.

Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.

e.g.I can taste pepper in it. I‘m tasting this soup.

Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to expre different meanings, e.g. Be quiet.I‘m thinking (= giving thought to a problem).

There are also cases of a special polite use of the progreive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Claification of verbs (II) According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.

4) Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be claified into three categories: a) Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b) Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c) Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.

Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily gueed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of .

5) Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense; the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.

Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6) Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1) Tense and aspect

Tense is a grammatical form aociated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time; that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.

The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expreed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to expre tense. Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the proce expreed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progreive and the perfective aspects.

The uses of tense and aspect Tense:

present

past Aspect: progreive

perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:

1) simple present, 2) simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:

3) present progreive, 4) past progreive

5) present perfective, 6) past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:

7) Present perfective progreive

8) Past perfective progreive

2) Active voice and paive voice

Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and paive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice; if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the paive voice and the sentence is called paive sentence.

The paive voice is formed by the auxiliary be + -ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six paive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progreive, the past progreive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the paive, simple and perfective.

―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made paive by using a paive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the paive is formed by get + -ed participle, it is called get-paive, distinguished from be-paive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.

Get-paive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expreions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖. 3) Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance exprees a fact (indicative mood), a command or request (imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis (subjunctive mood)

4) Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.

Leon 11 Tense and aspect (I) 教学重点及难点：

The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progreive;

The use of simple present, the present progreive, and present perfect

教学基本内容

Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timele present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;

Use of present Progreive.The present progreive has the following uses: to denote an action in progre at the moment of speaking, an action in progre at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;

The two chief uses of the present perfective/progreive and how the present perfective/progreive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.

Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect (I) In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expreed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progreive and the past progreive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progreive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:

Timele present

The most common use of the simple present is found in the expreion of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.

This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:

Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no mo.London stands on the River Thames.

Habitual present

A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically aociated with dynamic verbs, eg:

Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.

Momentary and instantaneous present

The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly aociated with stative verbs, eg:

What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?

A le common use. The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking. Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg: (page184)

Simple present referring to the future

The simple present can also be used to denote future time.

This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.

This kind of future expreion will be elaborated on in lecture 13.

In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.

These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc; the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖; and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see (to it)/ make sure/ make certain (that) you don‘t get lost.

Simple present referring to the past

In addition to the meanings discued above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.

This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to expre the present effect of information received in the past, eg:

Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.

Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividne to the description.

This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:

…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.

11.2 Uses of simple past

The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progreive or the perfective aspect.

This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:

Past event and past habit

The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.

This is what we call the event/state past, eg:

He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.

The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.

Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖) His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)

Attitudinal and hypothetical past

In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.

There are two uses. One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is aociated with the present time in independent clauses expreing a question, request or suggestion. Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion le direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:

A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.

The other is what we call the hypothetical past. In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:

It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.

If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.

11.3 Uses of present progreive

The present progreive (am/is/are+-ing participle) has the following uses:

To denote an action in progre at the moment of speaking

To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progreive, generally aociated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:

A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.

The difference between the simple present and the present progreive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.compare:

He lives in shanghai (permanent residence) He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)

To denote an action in progre at a period of time including the present

The present progreive can also expre an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necearily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.

compare:

He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.

Note that the present progreive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.

By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progreive and states a fact objectively.

compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house .To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement

The present progreive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:

Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.

The present progreive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:

I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.

To denote other meanings

Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progreive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expreed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.

I don‘t know what you are talking about.

The present progreive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:

I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.

I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.

As mentioned before, the present progreive is commonly aociated with durative dynamic verbs.

With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progreive will be understood to expre repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.

11.4 Uses of past progreive

The use of the past progreive (was/were+ -ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progreive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expreed by a time-when adverbial.

The following are the uses of the past progreive.

To denote an action in progre at a definite point or period of past time

This is the most common use of the past progreive.

In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.

In the past progreive, the notion of incompletene is more clearly indicated than in the present progreive, eg:

What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.

It is based on this use that the past progreive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:

The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.

To denote a past habitual action

The habitual action denoted by the past progreive is most clearly characterized by its temporarine, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:

George was getting up at five every day that week.

As in the case of the present progreive, the past progreive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to expre emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:

My brother was always losing his keys.

To denote futurity in the past

In specific contexts, the past progreive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.

This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:

They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.

To make polite requests and expre hypothetical meanings

The past progreive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progreive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.

Of the three forms, the past progreive is the most tentative in making polite requests.compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.

To expre hypothetical meanings, the past progreive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:

I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.

Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.

Contrast between past progreive and simple past

In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progreive.

There are a few more points to note.

To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past; to denote an action in progre, we use the past progreive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past; to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progreive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progreive.In colloquial speech, the past progreive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimle, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.

compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:

When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.

In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progre when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.

Leon 12 Tense and aspect (II)

教学重点及难点：

Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progreive.

Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.

教学基本内容

Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.

Past perfective progreive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.

There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.

Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect (II) The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progreive aspect, resulting in present perfective progreive and past perfective progreive.

12.1 uses of present perfective (progreive)

This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective (progreive) and how the present perfective (progreive) is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.

Present perfective

Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense (have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.

This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.

The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, poibly extending into the future as well.

The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expreing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.

compare:

He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)

He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)

Present perfective progreive

The use of the present perfective progreive (have/has been + -ing participle) has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.

compare:

I‘ve been writing letters for an hour (and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden (and have just come indoors).

There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progreive has also the meanings of continuousne, temporarine and incompletene.

compare:

Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖) Who‘s eaten my dinner? (―It‘s all gone.‖)

Contrast between present perfective (progreive) and simple past

As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective (progreive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.

Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expreed by the simple past or the past progreive.

compare:

His sister has been an invalid all her life .(―she is still alive.‖) His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)

12.2.Uses of past perfective (progreive)

Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective (progreive).

Past perfective

The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.

In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past,

and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and poibly into the future in the past, e.g.:

I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.

Past perfective progreive

The past perfective progreive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progreive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progreive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progreive is more frequently used than the past perfective.

compare:

I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called

Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before- /after-/ until- clauses

Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.

The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expreed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.

compare:

When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.

Leon Plan 教案

Time课次 1

Date 日期

12/1/13 （单课）

Leon type课程类型: New leon Contents 教学内容：

第一章 Extra Contents 扩展内容：名词

Purposes 教学目标：熟练运用

1、可数名词（单数变复数的规律）

2、不可数名词（加上量词的变化）

3、名词所有格（各自所有和多者共 有的结构、无生命、词尾是s的结构）

Key words 重点单词：专有名词、不可数名词、可数名词、名词所有格 Key structures 重点句型：I like drinking milk and eating rice.

I don’t like milk.I like apples.Teaching tools 教具：各类单词卡片

Homework 家庭作业：1.抄写隐形衣1遍

2.抄写魔法咒语3遍

3.完成单元试卷

4.预习（章前对话、魔法屋）

创新：根据上课情况来写（课后完成）需改进之处：根据上课情况来写（课后完成）

Cla Dismi 过关放学：
1.竞技场（现场练习，错误2个以上不过关，最好能够当堂讲解）

2.口诀背诵比赛

对抗：切水果，得3分抽一个水果，如果抽到别的名词，3分作废，抽到水果本组得，再得3分可以选择是自己抽水果，还是切掉对方的水果，最后看谁的分数多（水果后面有分数）。

Teaching Procedure 基本流程：

老师在上课前20分钟进教室，

1、老师和学生问答（10分钟）

2、检查学生的试卷并批改（10分钟）

3、检查预习

Step1: Greeting + warm up (5分钟)

T: Good morning ladies and gentlemen.Today is a happy day, let’s play together and learn together.

I like drinking milk.What about you? S: I like···.(可数或不可数名词) T: One, two, three, let’s play ,about what? Everything.Apple··· S: 接单词要求和老师说的同类，如：水果，动物、人名等等 Step2:复习上次课内容（第一次新课没有复习）

Step3: New words（50分钟）

1、Presentation导入:

老师为服务员，学生为顾客，老师将菜单给学生问其“What do you like?”

老师：Welcome to our restaurant ,please sit here! This is our menu, what do you like?(老师将事先准备好的菜单给学生)学生抽卡片（卡片是不同种类的名词如：学生名字 \\\\ tea\\\\ cat等）并说：I like··· 引出今天所学的名词种类，此时每个学生手上都有一张单词卡，让学生到黑板上开始给单词分类。

专有名词

① 魔法屋：给学生专有名词定义，让学生将专有名词写出来（规定时间内，两组比赛看谁写的多） ② 羊皮卷：让学生总结归纳，在不看书的情况下，哪组能归纳的最多最完整 ③ 隐形衣：给出例句改错:I will go to the great wall on sunday.（看哪组反应最快，一题赚1万块钱） ④ 魔法咒语：一问一答（总结）读2遍，老师上句，学生下句 T:专有名词不可数；

Ss：人名地名和国家，没有复数只单数。

可数名词

① 魔法屋：（一般+ s的情况）T：一只猫

Ss：a cat

T：好多猫

Ss：cats T：相当多的猫

Ss：cats T：一只猫

Ss：a cat （老师可以问快点，让学生反应快点）

（+ es的情况）There are some dishes, watches and boxes in the buses.找出复数名词的共同点（去y改i+ es的情况）老师给出一个例子baby---babies，boy—boys，然后让学生找例子（看哪组找的快，加分）

（去f\\\\ fe 改v+ es的情况）老师给出wife—wives，让学生找例子（加分）

② 羊皮卷：让学生总结归纳，以sh\\\\ ch\\\\ x\\\\ o\\\\ s结尾的名词变复数+ es，在不看书的情况下，哪组能归纳的最快最完整

有一些组合名词的复数：有一天，黄馨和史佳佳打架，钟奕在旁边看，钟奕是一个looker-on，后来Coco、赵芸、张子立、姚金菊一起来看了，有很多looker-on，这个复数加在哪里？单词的主体是looker，复数就加在主体lookers-on。成年人grown-up没有主体，就加在最后grown-ups。两个部分都是主体man teacher—men teachers两者都加s。

③ 隐形衣：不规则变化的名词：老师准备一个卡纸，折3份，分别写上单数形式和复数一正一误的形式，让学生去选择（赚钱）如tooth—toothes—teeth 。最后让学生总结出不规则的变化，并且要求背诵

④ 魔法咒语：一问一答（总结）读2遍，老师上句，学生下句 T:妻子持刀去宰狼；

Ss：小偷吓得发了慌。···

⑤ 听写（口诀、隐形衣、特殊词组）第一次课没有

(课间休息10分钟)

不可数名词

① 魔法屋：老师之前以呈现单词给出例句为主，让学生找规律，体现不可数名词的定义，There is some milk. Tea is a common drink.特别注意谓语动词（单数）Meat and soup are in the fridge.② 羊皮卷：让学生找不可数名词在句子中的特点，如：前面不能加a\\\\an; 作主语时谓语动词用单数，两类不可数名词作主语，谓语动词用复数。（看哪组找的最完整，对抗）

③ 隐形衣：不可数名词不能用数来计算，但是可以用量词，T：一瓶果酱、一杯咖啡、一片面包等，首先要找对量词，不能说一头人，一杯面包等，结构：量词+ of+ 不可数名词。然后让学生造句（看那组用时最少，对抗）总结：数词+量词（复数）+ of+ 不可数名词。

④ 魔法咒语：一问一答（总结）读2遍，老师上句，学生下句 T:专有名词不可数；

Ss：人名地名和国家，没有复数只单数。

名词所有格

① 魔法屋：前方打仗后方支援，T: I want some pens.学生传pens给老师，老师可以变化单复数，I want a book, I want a bottle of water.等。收完了东西，老师走到孩子中去问：Whose is this···？学生：It’s xxx ’s.老师问：Whose are these pens? 学生：They are xxx’s and xxx’s.（分别所有）。

T: Whose is this claroom? 学生：It’s xxx and xxx’s.(共同所有)。老师：Whose are these···？学生：They are boys’.

② 羊皮卷：让学生总结归纳，在不看书的情况下，哪组能归纳的最多最完整（对抗）

③ 隐形衣：判断：the gate of the school \\\\ the gate’s school ？（赚钱）today’s weather\\\\ the weather of today？；
China’s culture \\\\ culture of China？ (表示距离、时间、国家、城镇等无生命的名词，也可以用’s 表示所有格) ④ 魔法咒语：一问一答（总结）读2遍，老师上句，学生下句 T:一撇s所有格；

Ss：s结尾只加撇

Step4: 总结（10分钟）：

1、黑魔药（让错误句子体现，让学生现场改错，火眼金睛）

2、魔法咒语：老师：一撇s所有格。学生：s结尾只加撇···（口诀）

老师：表示距离的无生命的所有格可以用什么结构？学生：’s 结构（隐形衣）

Step5:表扬：分片表扬与个人表扬结合总结对抗，表扬个人

Step6:过关放学（10分钟）

1.竞技场（现场练习，错误2个以上 不过关，最好能够当堂讲解）

2.口诀背诵比赛

Step7:布置作业

1.抄写隐形衣1遍

2.抄写魔法咒语3遍 3.完成单元试卷

4.预习（章前对话、魔法屋）

英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

第一讲

语法层次

教学目标：帮助学生认识词素和词以及词的分类，掌握名词的性、数变化。

教学步骤：

1、词素、词及其分类

2、名词的分类、数、所有格

3、练习

一、词素和词

一）词素

词素(morpheme)是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语意单位。词素分为两大类：自由词素（free morpheme）和粘附词素（bound morpheme）。

1）自由词素指本身具有完整意义并能做为“简单词”（simple word）而单独使用的词素，比如boy, girl, kind take等都属于这一类。自由词素可以充当词根(root)加上词缀（affix）构成派生词（derivative）.另外还可以构成复合词（compound word）例如：bookmark.2）粘附词素指本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，而必须黏附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。粘附词素的主要功能是在构词上充当词缀。

二）词

词(word)是比词素高一级的语法单位，由一个或一个以上的词素构成。

3）根据构词法，英语的词可分为简单词，派生词和复合词。

a) 简单词，又叫“单词素词”，是由单一自由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如at, by, in.b) 派生词，是由词根加派生词缀构成。例如：un-,mis-,pro- c) 复合词，通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如：deadline, handbook, something

二、名词

一）可数名词和不可数名词 1．可数名词和不可数名词的区别

a) 可数名词有单复数形式，如a book, an egg b) 下列名词常用做不可数名词accommodation, advice, baggage, fun, luck, paper等

2、可数名词和不可数名词的相互转化

a) 很多蔬菜动物等名词，一般是可数的，但用来表示食品时就转化成不可数名词。

例如：They grow their own carrots.Good stew must contain carrot.

1 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

There are few lambs in the zoo.Would you like some lamb or pork? b)物质名词或抽象名词一般是不可数的，但用来表示具体个别事物时，通常是可数的。

例如：Beer ie refreshing in summer.They have two beers.Some rich men live in luxury.A refrigerator is a luxury here.c)物质名词用于表示各种不同品种时，几乎都能用做可数名词。例如：a store selling many different teas, various soaps等。应注意某些物质名词或抽象名词用做复数时，词意往往起变化。例如：

Light travels faster than sound.Do you have lights in the corridor? d)当抽象名词前后有修饰语表示某一种或某一方面的抽象概念时，其前可加a, an。例如：
There is a certain honesty about this man which forces me to admire him.Geography gives us a knowledge of other countries.二）复合名词

2）复合名词的形式

a) 两个名词写做一个名词，中间无连字符，如：headache, newspaper, railway b) 两个名词写做一个词，中间有连字符，如：mouse-trap, tooth-brush c) 两个名词分开写，如：flower shop, police station, goods train 上面三条无一定的规则可循，需要熟记。

3）复合名词的复数

a) 以不可数名词结尾的复合名词没有复数形式，如：homework, moonlight b) 以可数名词结尾的复合名词有复数形式，如：bedrooms, bookcases c) 以man 或woman为前缀的复合名词变复数时，前后两个名词均变成复数，如：woman student---women students d) 以可数名词加介词（短语）构成的复合名词，在名词后加s,如：looker-on---lookers-on, mother-in-law---mothers-in-law e) 以动词或动词的ed形式加副词构成的复合词，在词尾加s,如：sit-in---sit-ins, stand-by---stand-bys, grown-up---grown-ups

2 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

f) 一动词ing形式加副词构成的复合名词，在动词ing形式后加s,如：coming-in---coming-ins(收入) 三）单位名词

单位名词常用来表示不可数名词的个体性，即使之能以“个体”计算，也能与可数名词搭配表示“一双”，“一群”等意义。

4）表示形状的单位名词有：a ball of string, a bar of chocolate, a block of ice, a cake of soap, a drop of water, a grain of sand, seven head of cattle, a loaf of bread, a lump of sugar, a slice of meat等。

5）表示容积，重量的单位名词有：a bag of flour, a basket of fruit, a bottle of wine, a gallon of oil, a quart of milk, a pound of butter,等。

6）表示成双成群的单位名词有：a couple of players, a flock of birds, a pair of shoes, a swarm of bees等。

单位名词及其搭配需要结合句子或课文熟记。

练习书后P69,73 四）名词复数

1）以字母o结尾的名词复数

a) 加-es的有：echo, hero, Negro, potato, tomato, torpedo, veto b) 加-s的有：auto, bamboo, dynamo, kilo, memo, photo, piano, radio, shampoo, studio, tango, zoo c) 既可加-s又可加-es的有：buffalo, cargo, Eskimo, mosquito, motto, tornado, volcano 2)以字母f或fe结尾的名词复数

a) 加-s的有：belief, chief, cliff, grief, gulf, handkerchief, roof, proof, safe b) 去掉f或fe加-ves的有：calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, thief, shelf, self, wife, wolf c) 有几个常见名词可以直接在后面去掉f加-ves或直接加s: hoof, scarf, wharf 3)单复数形式相同的名词有：deer, means, series, sheep, species 4)一些外来词汇的复数需要看见的时候特殊记忆，如：analysis—analyses 五）名词属格

英语名词有两种属格，’s属格和of属格。例如：
what is the ship’s name? What is the name of the ship?

3 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

1)s’属格的使用

a) 主要用于表示有生命的名词，如：women’s clothes, the horse’s mouth

b) 用于国家机关，社团及一些地理名称，如：the government’s property, Europe’s future c) 用于船只，飞机，火车等，如：the ship’s bell, a glider’s wings

d) 用于表示时间，距离，价值和重量的名词，如：a moment’s thoughts, eight hour’s drive, two dollar’s worth

e) 常用于一些习惯用语当中，如：for heaven’s sake, at the wit’s end 2)of属格的使用

主要用于表示无生命的名词，如：the wheel of history, the windows of the houses 3)双重属格

双重属格用来表示的所有关系是人而不是物。例如：a friend of mine, some sons of Mrs White’s , two plays of Shakespeare’s

双重属格还常用this, that, these, those修饰of短语前面的名词，以表示爱憎褒贬等情感。例如：this idea of yours, that dog of Robert’s

三、练习见书 8

6、87 页

第二讲句子结构类型

教学目的：

要求学生掌握英语句子的基本类型，并能对基本句型加以分析和改写。

教学步骤：

1.介绍英语句子的基本类型。 2.要求学生做课堂练习。.3.课外作业,完成剩余练习。

教学过程：

一、英语句子的基本类型。 英语句子有五种基本类型。

.1.Subject + Intransitive Verb 此句型特点：既然该句型中动词后面不带宾语，所以用于此句型的动词应该是不及物动词。

a.Man proposes；
God disposes.b.Modesty benefits；
pride hurts.这种句型谓语动词后往往带有状语：
c.Great minds think alike.

4 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

d.The sun sets in the west． 2.主语+系动词+主语补足语（也称作表语） Subject + Link Verb + Subject complement 此句型特点是：句中动词一般是be动词或其他系动词。

1).最常见的是形容词、名词(短语)作表语。

a.He looks unhappy.b．Bread is the staff of life． 2).也可用介词短语作表语: c．Beauty is in the eye of the beholder。

3).在英语中，除了be动词以外，还有以下系动词：

(1)．单纯表示主语的特征、状态的：feel，look，sound, taste，smell seem appear等。

a．The iron feels hot．

b．The rose doesn\\"t smell much．

(2)．表示主语由一种状态转变为另一种状态的：become，grow，get，turn，fall，go，come等（这些系动词与形容词连用，一般是具有固定的搭配关系） a．Our supplies of sugar and rice fell short。

b．Hope your dreams will come true．

(3)．表示主语保持某种状态的：continue，remain，Stay，keep，hold，rest，prove等。

a．The weather continued fine for several days． b．He held silent for the whole day． 3.主语+谓语+宾语

Subject +Transitive Verb +Object 英语中绝大多数动词都适用于这一句型，而且能作宾语的成分很多 a．Beauty will buy no beef． b．I’ve finished reading the book．主语+谓语+双宾语

Subject +Dative Verb +Indirect Object +Direct Object 有些动词后边需要接两个宾语：一个指人的宾语，称之为间接宾语；
另一个指物的宾语，称之为直接宾语。间接宾语和之间宾语统称为双宾语。

a．He showed the guard his paport.b．I will buy you a meal．

能这样使用的动词可分成三类：(根据间接宾语和介词的关系来分) 1).同give一样，当间接宾语后移时，间接宾语前需带介词to，表示间接宾语是动作的接受者。这样的动词有：aign，award，bring，deliver，deny，feed，give，grant，hand，lend，offer，owe，pa，promise，post，read，recommend，sell，send，show，take，write，ect.

5 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

a．He showed his paport to the guard.b．He showed the guard his paport．

2).同buy一样，当间接宾语后移时，间接宾语前需带介词for，这样的动词有：book(预订)，buy，build，change，choose，cook，fetch，find，get，keep，make，order，prepare，sing，ect.a．I am going to buy a gift for her.b．I am going to buy her a gift．

3).有个别动词只用于这样的结构：“主语+动词+间接宾语(+直接宾语)”，而不用介词来替换。这样的动词有：charge，cost，bet，ect.a．I’ll bet you ten dollars.b．The repairman charged me ten dollars．

此外，较特殊的动词如：ask，当间接宾语后移时，间接宾语前需带介词of。

a．Can I ask a question of you.

4.主语+谓语+复合宾语

Subject +Factitive Verb + Object + Object complement 1).接复合宾语的动词

有些动词后面接宾语时意思不完整，因而在宾语后还需要接补充说明宾语的补足语，宾语和宾语补足语统称为复合宾语。

常见的带复合宾语的动词有：appoint，believe，call，choose，consider，declare，elect，feel，find，keep，leave，let，make，name，nominate，prove，see，suppose，vote，ect.a．They appointed John chairman.b．A hedge(树篱)between keeps friendship green． 2).区分双宾语和复合宾语比较：

I made John our chairman． I made John a cake．

判断两种宾语的方法很简单：在宾语后边加上be动词，若能构成完整的句子，则是补足语。比如我们可以说：John is our chairman。说以上句中的our chairman是宾语补足语。无法构成完整的句子，则为直接宾语。比如我们不能说：John is a cake。(约翰是一块蛋糕)所以，a cake 是直接宾语。

四类名词从句

在英文中，名词或名词短语主要充当四种成分：主语、宾语、表愈和同位语(见下表一列)。如果我们把句子当作名词来用，分别在另一个句中作主语、宾语、表语和同位语(见下表二列)，于是构成了四种从句：主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。因为这四种从句在本质上

6 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

相当于名词的作用，所以我们把它们统称为名词从句。

1.要在陈述句句首加上that 从上述表格我们可以看到，我们并不是把三种句子直接用来作另一句子的某一成分，而是要分别对三种句子稍加修改。

对于陈述句，我们需要在句首加上that，然后把“that+陈述句”这一结构分别放在另一个句子的四种位置即构成四种名词从句。

1)主语从句

把“that+陈述句”这一结构放在主语位置即构成主语从句：
That English is difficult is not my idea. That the moon itself does not give off light is common knowledge. 更常见的是用it作形式主语置于句首，而将主语从句放在句末。

It is obvious that he doesn’t understand English. It is common knowledge that the moon itself does not give off light. 因此，下列都是常见的主语从句句型：

①It is +过去分词+that 从句 It’s reported that„„ It’s believed that„„

It’s generally thought that„„ It should be noted that„„ It has been found that„„ It must be pointed out that„„

同样可以这么用的动词有：say，expect，know，estimate，forcast，等。

②It is+形容词+that从句：
It is clear that„„ It is poible that„„ It is likely that „„ It is natural that It is certain that„„ It is strange that„„ It is fortunate that„„ It is neceary that„„

③It is+名词短语+that从句：a pity，a shame，an honor，a good idea，no wonder，等等。

It is a pity that„„ It is a fact that„„ It is good news that„„

7 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

It is a good thing that„„ It is no wonder that„„ It is a shame that„„ It is an honor that„„ It is common knowledge that„„ It is my belief that„„ It is a miracle that„„ 2)宾语从句

把“that+陈述句”这一结构放在宾语位置即构成宾语从句：

I think (that)you are right.We know (that)the world is round.只有宾语从句中的that才可以省去，主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句中that一般不要省去。

3)表语从句

把“that+陈述句”这一结构放在表语位置即构成表语从句：

My idea is that the child should be sent to school.4)同位语从句

把“that+陈述句”这一结构放在同位语位置即构成同位语从句。所谓同位语，就是用来补充说明名词的成分，当我们用一个完整的陈述句来补充名词时，即构成同位语从句。所以同位语从句都是位于一个名词后边，形式上变构成“名词+that+陈述句”。

He has prepared to prove his theory that two different weights would fall to the ground at the same time.The rumor that Tom was a thief turned out to be untrue.注意：同位语从句可能与所修饰的名词被其他成分隔开。

They spread the lie everywhere that Tom was guilty of theft.A saying goes that practice makes perfect.2.为什么要加that？

首先，that完全是后来在陈述句开头加上去的，因此，that显然不要充当从句任何成分，只起着引导作用。

That English is difficult is not my idea.假如我们把that去掉，上句就说成：
English.这就话就有两个中心谓语不分：is difficult 和is not my idea。

在英文中，句子的核心意思主要是靠谓语部分来表达的，一个句子只表达一个核心意思(因为我们说话要一句一句说)，也就只能有一个谓语部分。现在句子有两个谓语部分，势必会造成读者混淆不清，因为他会先读出：

8 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

English is difficult.可是当他继续往下读时，又出现了is not my idea这个谓语部分。

English is difficult is not my idea.为了避免这个混淆，我们在句首加上一个标志that，that一出现就等于是在告诉你说：that后面紧接着的句子是要作为另一个句子的某一个成分来使用，不是我要表达的核心思想。因此，读者读到：

That English is difficult„„

对于同位语从句和表语从句，若没有that作标志同样会存在这种意思混淆不清的问题。

一般疑问句可分别充当四种句子成分

1.一般疑问句要变成特殊陈述句，并且用whether或if来引导。 1)主语从句

Whether he comes or not makes no difference to me.2)宾语从句

I don’t know if/whether he needs my help.3)表语从句

My concern is whether he comes or not.4)同位语从句

They are faced with the problem whether they should continue to work.2.if还是whether? 1)if一般只用于引导宾语从句,而whether可引导包括宾语从句在内的其他名词从句。

a.if he comes or not makes no difference b.The question is if he will come 2)if不和or not 直接连用，即一般不说I or not。但可以说if „„or not 。而whether没有此限制。

a.I don’t know if or not he comes。

b.I don’t know whether or not he comes。

特殊疑问句可分别充当四种句子成分

1.特殊疑问句变成陈述句语序，而不是倒装语序。 a．I have no idea when he will returu。

b．Why he refused to cooperate with us is still a mystery。

2．充当四种成分 1)主语从句

a.September 11，2001 started out as an ordinary day ，but what happened that morning will be forever etched in our memories。

9 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

b.How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.2)宾语从句

a.The mother will buy whichever books her son wants.b.We don’t know why he did not come yesterday.3)表语从句

a.Change is what keeps us fresh and innovative.Change is what keeps us from getting stale.Change is what keeps us young.b.Yesterday is history.Tomorrow is a mystery.Today is a gift.That’s why it’s called the present! 4)同位语从句

a.I have no idea who he is.b.There arose the question where we could get the loan.最后要说明的是，同位语从句通常是由that引导，而很少用whether，if以及连接代词或连接副词引导，这是因为我们多是用陈述句来补充名词的内容，而很少用一般疑问句或特殊疑问句来补充名词的内容。

二.课堂练习

要求学生完成练习P27。

三.作业

要求学生完成剩余部分练习。

第三讲：主谓一致

一）主谓一致的种类

1．语法形式上的一致

主语为单数形式，谓语动词用单数形式；
主语为复数形式，谓语动词也用复数形式。如：
The number of the students present is 200. Jane and Mary look alike. 2．意义上一致

1）主语形式虽为单数，但意义为复数，谓语动词用复数。如：The crowd were shouting. 单数形式代表复数内容的词有：people, , cattle,等。

2）主语形式为复数，而意义上却是单数，谓语动词用单数。如：The news was so surprising. 形复意单的单词有news和一些以ics结尾的学科名称，如physics，politics, economics等。

3．就近原则

即谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。如用连词or，either…or, neither…not, not only…but also等连接的并列主语，如果一个是单数，一个是复数，谓语动词与靠近它的主语一致。如：

Either your students or Mr.Wang knows this.

（二）主谓一致的应用 1．名词作主语

1）某些集体名词，如family, team等作主语时，如果作为一个整体看待，谓语动词用单数形式，如果就其中一个个成员而言，谓语动词用复数形式。如：

10 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

His family is a happy one. The whole family are watching TV.

这类名词有：audience，cla，club，company，crew，enemy，crowd，government，group，party，public，team等。

2）某些集体名词，如people, police, cattle等，只当复数看待，谓语动词必须用复数。如：
The police are searching for the thief.

3）单、复数同形的名词主语时，谓语动词应根据意义决定单、复数。如：
A sheep is over there. Some sheep are over there.

4）当名词词组中心词为表示度量、距离、金额、时间、书名等复数名词时，往往可以根据意义一致的原则，把这些复数名词看作一个整体，谓语用单数形式。如：

Three years has paed since then.

5）不定代词each, every, no所修饰的名词即使以and或逗号连接成多主语时，谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：
Each boy and each girl wants to go to the cinema.

6）如果主语有more than one很多非常…或many a许多„„构成，尽管从意义上看是复数内容，但它的谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：

More than one student has read the book. Many a girl has been there.

但是，“more +复数名词+than one”结构之后，谓语动词一般多用复数形式。如：
More members than one are against your plan.

7）一些有两个部分构成的名词表示衣物或工具作主语时，谓语动词通常用复数形式，例如：glaes, clothes, trousers, shoes, compaes, chopsticks, sciors等。但如果主语用“a kind of, a pair of , a series of等加名词”构成时，谓语动词一般用单数形式。如：

A pair of shoes was on the desk.

8）this kind of book =a book of this kind（这种书），其谓语动词用单数；
短语this kind of men =men of this kind =these kind of men(口语)（这一类人），但this kind of men的谓语动词用单数，men of this kind和these kind of men的谓语动词用复数，all kinds of后跟复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：

This kind of men is dangerous.Men of this kind are dangerous.10）复数形式的单、复数同形名词作主语时，按意义一致原则，作用单数意义时，谓语用单数，反之，谓语用复数。这类名词有：means（方法），works（工厂），species（种类），Chinese，Japanese等。如：

The (This) gla works was set up in 1980.(这家玻璃厂建于1980年。) The（These）gla works are near the railway station.（这些玻璃厂在火车站附近。）

当它们前面有a, such a , this, that修饰时，谓语用单数；
有all, such, these, those修饰时，谓语用复数，但means, no means, 11）如果名词词组中心词是all，most, half, rest等词语，所指的复数意义，谓语动词用复数形式；
反之，用单数。如：
All of my clamates like music.All of the water is gone.12)在主谓倒装的句子中，谓语动词的数应与其后的主语一致。如：
Between the two windows hangs a picture.2．由连接词连接的名词作主语

1）用and或both…and连接并列主语，谓语动词通常用复数形式。如：
Plastics and rubber never rot.Walking and riding are good exercises.2）当主语后面跟有as well as, as much as, no le than, along with, with, like, rather than, together with, but, except, besides, including, in addition to等引导的词组时，其谓语动词的单、复数由引导词前面的主语而定。如：

The teacher as well as the students was reading in the library.３）以or, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also等连接的名词（代词）作主语时，谓语动词的单复数应根据就近一致的

11 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

原则。如：

Tom or his brothers are waiting in the room.Either you or he is to go.3．代词作主语

1）关系代词who, that, which等在定语从句中作主语时，其谓语动词的数应与句中先行词的数一致。如：
Those who want to go please put up your hands.

Some of the energy that is used by man comes from the sun.

2）疑问代词who, what, which作主语时，谓语动词可根据说话人所要表达的意思决定单、复数。如：
Who lives next door ? It is Xiao Liu. Who live next door ? It is Zhang and Liu. What produce(s) heat ?

3）ther, neither单独作主语时，谓语通常用单数。

但后接of时，若of的宾语为不可数名词，动词当然用单数形式，若of的宾语为复数名词或代词时，动词可以是单数，也可以是复数，在正式文体中，单数形式的动词更常用。如：

Do(es) any of you know his addre ? None of them has(have)seen the film.4．分数、量词作主语

1）“分数或百分数+名词”构成的短语以及由“a lot of, lots of plenty of, a large quantity of, a heap of, heaps of, half of +名词”构成的短语作主语时，其谓语动词要与短语中of后面的名词的数保持一致，这是因为短语中后面的名词是中心词，而短语中前面的量词是修饰语，例如：

Lots of damage was caused by fire.About three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water.Three-fifths of the workers here are women.和这种情况类似的还有“a number of+名词复数”谓语用复数译为大量，许多，the number of中心词是number,谓语用单数，译为„的数量

A number of students have gone home.The number of pages in this book is two hundred.注意：(large)quantities of„„不可数名词，其短语作主语时，谓语动词一般用复数，例如：

Quantities of food(nuts) were on the table.短语in quantity, in large quantities意为“大量”；
in small quantities意为“少量”。

2）a great deal of , a large amount of修饰不可数名词，其短语作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数；
large amounts of修饰不可数名词，其短语作主语时，谓语动词通常用复数，例如：

A large amount of(A great deal of)damage was done in a very short time.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.3）表示数量的one and a half后，名词要用复数形式，但是其短语作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式，例如：
One and a half bananas is left on the table.5．名词化的形容词作主语

如果主语由“the+形容词（或过去分词）”结构担任时，谓语通常用复数，这类词有：the brave, the poor, the rich, the blind, the young, the old, the sick, the dead, the deaf and dumb, the oppreed, the injured, the wounded, the unemployed等；

The blind study in special schools.The poor live in a undeveleped country 6．从句作主语

1）由what引导的主语从句，谓语动词通常用单数，但所指的具体内容是复数意义时，谓语动词一般用复数形式，例如：
What we need is more time.What we need are doctors.

12 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

1.Three ______ died in the terrible fire in Luoyang last winter.A.hundreds people B.hundred people C.hundreds peoples D.hundred peoples 2.Either you or the president _______ the prizes to these gifted winners at the meeting.A.is handing out B.are to hand out C.are handing out D.is to hand out 3.I, who ______ your close friend, will try my best to help you out of trouble.A.am B.is C.are D.be 4.The Olympic Games in the year 2008 ______ in Beijing of China, which ______ known to us all.A.is to hold; is B.is to be held; was C.are to hold; is D.are to be held; is 5.There _____ a lot of rubbish on the floor so I asked Mary to sweep _____ up.A.were; it B.are; them C.was; it D.is; them 6.Three million tons of coal ______ every year in the city.A.is exploited B.are exploited C.had exploited D.have exploited 7.Stories of the Long March _______ popular with the young people now.A.is B.was C.are D.were 8.Mathematics _______ the language of science.A.are B.are going to be C.is D.is to be 9.Both rice and wheat _____ grown in our country.A.is B.are C.was D.were 10.________ either of your parents come to see you recently? A.Have B.Had C.Has D.Is 11.What the children in the mountain village need ________ good books.A.is B.are C.have D.has 12.The whole family _______ TV attentively.A.are watching B.is watching C.is seeing D.are seeing 13.Nothing but several glaes ________ bought by my father the day before yesterday.A.was B.were C.have been D.would be 14.At the bus stop ______ a soldier and two young people on their way to the village.A.were B.was C.is D.sits 15.If law and order ______, neither the citizen nor his family is safe.A.are not preserved B.is not preserved C.were preserved D.have not been preserved 16.There ______ little change in that middle school.A.have B.had C.have been D.has been 17.What such a sunset is ______ strange to us all.A.going to be B./ C.is D.that 18.Seventy-five percent of the earth’s surface ______ with water.

13 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

A.is covered B.is covering C.were covered D.are covered 19.The following ______ some other mental diseases.A.being B.are C.was D.were 20.Not only you but also I ______ able to help him out.A.are B.is C.am D.were 21.“ The Kites” ______ us a story of the kite’s history.A.have told B.tells C.were told D.was told 22.You and I _____ twin sisters.A.were B.are C.is D.am 23.A teacher of English and cla teacher _______ us something about volunteer workers.A.are telling B.is telling C.are given D.were given 24.Thousands of tons of rubbish ________ over a large period of time.A.rots away B.rot away C.has rotted away D.are rotted away 25.Mayor as well as volunteer workers _______ the newly-built stadium.A.is cleaning B.are cleaning C.were cleaning D.have cleaned 26.Many a student ______ something about Abraham Lincoln.A.have known B.knows C.is known D.are known 27.The defence works ______ built long ago to keep the enemy away.A.were B.has been C.had been D.was 28.“ Have you all studied the paage‘Using the Mind against Disease’？” “______ .”

A.Nobody of us has B.Nobody of us have C.None of us has D.None of us did 29.A group of Italian soldiers ______ quickly towards their position.A.were advancing B.were advanced C.was advancing D.advancing 30.Everyone, men and women, old and young ______ sports and games.A.is enjoy B.were enjoying C.enjoys D.enjoy

第二讲

形容词和副词

教学目标：形容词：形容词的作用、形容词的位置；
副词：副词的构成、位置。

教学步骤：

1、形容词的构成、形容词-that 从句、形容词的位置。

2、副词的位置、常见副词的用法。

3、练习

一、形容词

14 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

1）形容词在句子中的作用：

Healthy children are happy children.（定语） We make our children happy.（宾语补语） The patient is asleep.（主语补语）

注：以a开头的表示状态的形容词若用作定语，必须后置。如果

它前面有修饰它的副词，可以前置。

The patient, tired and asleep, came a long way from a factory.The half-asleep patient was taken to the operating room.常见的这类形容词有：ablaze, adrift, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware

2)形容词加that 从句

I’m sure he’ll succeed.

We are aware that there is danger.

3)起形容词作用的名词和名词词组

a)名词用作形容词

stone wall---wall made of stone

honey bee----bee producing honey

fire brigade----a brigade for fighting fire

b)名词词组用作形容词

There wasn’t a ghost of chance (a ghostly chance) that Jack would win.They had a hell of a time (a hellish time) in the desert.

You will catch your death of cold (a deadly clod).4)形容词的位置

a)单个形容词作定语，一般前置，但也有后置。

Do you know the man clever at painting?

There’s something wrong in this sentence.

John is the best person available.

They have tried all the ways poible.

有几个形容词修饰一个名词时，形容词的次序并无固定的规律，一般的顺序是：

限定词----性质----大小，长度或形状---年龄---颜色----国籍----名词或动词ing形式。

She has a very valuable big gold watch.

15 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

This is a long brown leather belt.

Two brilliant young Chinese engineers live here.

二、副词 1）副词的构成

a) 大部分副词由“形容词+-ly构成，如capable----capably, extreme—extremely, gay---gaily, slow---slowly, true---truly, whole---wholly等。但是brotherly, friendly, heavenly, likely, lonely, lovely等词虽然有-ly后缀，却不是副词，而是形容词。

b) deep, direct, early, enough, far, fast, hard, high, late, low, much, near, pretty, straight, wrong等既是形容词又是副词，但要根据上下文确定其词性，有时词义也不同。

Adj.

Adv.

an early train

The train arrived early.

hard work

He works hard.a pretty girl

The problem is pretty difficult.副词的比较级或最高级常不带-ly.Would you mind walking slower? Let’s see who is able to run quickest.

2)副词的位置

几个副词在一起时的次序

程度---状态---地点---时间

They played fairly well there yesterday.注：不能把副词放在动词和宾语之间，如果宾语较长，可以把副词放在动词前。

John earnestly recommended to adopt their method of making the machine.

副词位置不同，有时意义也不一样。

He answered the questions foolishly.他的回答不高明。

He foolishly answered the questions.他真傻，回答了这些问题。

3）几个常见副词的意义和用法 a)fairly, quite, rather

这几个副词都可用来表示形容词或副词强度的变化。他们表示的程度：

fairly最弱，quite较强，rather更强。

The film is fairly/ quite/ rather good.（这部电影还好/ 好/ 很好。）

16 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

Fairly一般只与褒义连用；
rather既可以与褒义连用也可与贬义连用。

Tom is fairly clever, but Peter is rather stupid.

不定冠词可以放在rather之前或之后，但只能放在fairly之前，quite之后。

This is rather a silly book.

This is fairly interesting lecture.

I took quite a long walk this morning.

rather 可以用在比较级前，意为a little 或slightly

The weather was rather worse than I had expected.

too 可用于rather后，不用于fairly, quite, very后。

Jack is rather too sure of himself.

quite 与alone, amazing, exhausted, finished, perfect等词连用时，相当于completely, absolutely.

They are quite exhausted.

Her Ruian is quite perfect.b)hardly和scarcely 这两个词都含有否定的意思，可通用。

They hardly/ scarcely need your help.c) high, highly; late, lately; most, mostly The plane flew high above.（表示位置） This book is high interesting.（表示程度） He arrived late.（early的反意词） I haven’t seen him lately.(=recently)

Which one do you like most? ( = in the greatest degree) My friends are mostly engineers.(= mainly; chiefly) 4) 名词或名词词组起副词作用

The water tower stood miles from the place.（距离）

This cloth is thirty six inches wide.（度量）

I don’t care a bit what you do with it.（程度）

Step this way, please.（方向）

He is thirty years old.（年龄）

17 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

This is twenty five cents above the usual price.（价值）

This box weighs five kilogrammes（重量）

I am coming next week.（时间）

Wait a minutes.（持续时间）

I have told you several times.（重复次数）

此外,kind of, sort of, hand and foot等也都可用作副词。

I kind of admire him.（我有些敬佩他）

I was sort of tired.（我有点累了）

He was bound hand and foot.（他手脚被捆绑着）

三、练习见书P420, P443

第三讲代词、限定词

教学目标：使学生了解代词的分类及其用法，冠词的用法、常见的几个限定词的用法教学步骤：

1、人称代词的分类及其用法。

2、冠词的用法。

3、常见的几个限定词的用法。

4、练习。

一、代词 一）人称代词

1）人称代词的主格与宾格 we sat in the car.（主语） It was she.（主语补语）

The police found her.（动词宾语） The call is for me.（介词宾语） 2）人称代词的次序

在连续使用两个以上人称代词时，通常单数you放在第一位，I放在最后；
复数we放在第一位，they放在最后。

3）人称代词做同位语

The two captains, Lola and I , were to set the date.The group chose two representatives, Tom and me.

18 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

二）反身代词

4）一般用法

Heaven helps those who help themselves.（做直接宾语） Mary asked herself the same question.（做间接宾语） I am not worried about myself.（做介词宾语）

Why don’t you be yourself？（你为什么不能自然些？做主语补语） 5）强调用法

I myself took Mary to the airport.

I want to speak to the president himself-----and to nobody else.3)常用的反身代词短语 a) beside oneself(发狂，情不自禁)，all by oneself(单独地，独自地)，for oneself(亲自地，独立地)，抽象名词加itself=very+形容词

三）疑问代词

1）who 与whom

Who borrowed my tie?（主语）

Who is it?（主语补语）

Whom did you take to the theatre?（宾语）

Whom did you go with?(介词宾语) 4）whose, which, what 可以单独使用,也可以和名词放在一起,前者称名词性用法,后者称形容词性用法.例如: Whose is that bike outside?（名词性用法） Whose bike is that?（形容词性用法） What do you like to drink?（名词性用法） What size do you wear?（形容词性用法）

四）不定代词

5）one, oneself ,one’s

One must take oneself seriously.One is usually over-sensitive about one’s own family.

在美国英语当中可以用himself herself her his 与前面的one 对应

二、限定词

19 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

限定词用来限定名词所指的范围，如使名词成为泛指、特指或说明数量。限定词包括冠词、不定代词、指示代词、名词或代词所有格、数词与某些形容词性的物主代词。

一）、冠词冠词的位置

1)在名词词组中，冠词一般放在最前面。例如：
the last few days

a really good concert 2)名词词组里如果有all ,both, exactly, just, many, quite, rather, such, what, 等词，这类词可以放在冠词之前。例如：

all the time

both the brothers

exactly the wrong colour

just the right place

quite a nice day

rather a me

such a funny story 3) 和 as, how\\\\however, so, too连用时，形容词放在冠词之前。例如：

He is not so big a fool as you think.

She is as clever a girl as you’re ever likely to meet.This is too heavy a bag for me to carry.

How large an armchair did he have? 一）、不定冠词

1）a\\\\an表示“任何一个（类）”，只能用于单数可数名词前。如：

We are having a committee meeting this afternoon.但不可数名词用做可数名词时，前面可以用a\\\\an。

6）表示职业，社会地位，宗教，民族和年龄的名词用做补语或同位语时，前面一般要用a\\\\an 。例如：

When he was a child, he decided to become a racing driver.He’s a lawyer, a bachelor, and a Methodist（卫理公会教徒）。

She become an American by naturalization.They are nearly of an age.但有是并不需要冠词。如：
He was once secretary to the president.3)用于表示价格，速度，比率等名词前，如：five pence a kilo, four times a day 4)用于下列这样的固定短语中。如 a couple of, a dozen , a hundred, a lot of, a great number of 等。

20 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

二）、定冠词

实际上所有的名词前都可以有定冠词the。究竟用不用定冠词，主要取决于我们所表达的意思。如果我们要给予某个名词以明确的，限定的特指的意义，就用它。反之就不用。

定冠词主要用于带有修饰语的名词词组前面，也用于有后置修饰语的名词词组前面。

如：The Georgian houses have been sold.The steel of the gun barrels has gone rusty.

1)定冠词的主要用法

a) 用于单数名词前，表示某一类人或物，以区别与其他人或物。例如：
The tiger is a fierce animal.b) 用于指世界上独一无二的东西，如the moon, the sun, the world等。

c) 用于表示“乐器”的名词前，但一般不用于表示“体育运动”的名词前。如：
Can you play the guitar? I play football every day.d) 用语某些形容词前，可以表示某一类人。如：
The young are impatient, they want changes.e) 一般不用于表示“疾病”的名词前。如：
I’m just recovering from rheumatism.下列病名前一般用a/an I have an ache in my head.He has a cold.特指是需要用the ,如：

Jim has never really got over the malaria he caught in the East.f) 一般不用于表示“膳食”的名词前，但有形容词修饰时用the。例如：
Breakfast is served at eight.The wedding breakfast was held in her father’s house.如果泛指就用a.g) bed, church, college, court, hospital, market, prison, school, sea, work 等名词用来指有关活动时，一般不用冠词。例如：
It’s time for children to go to bed.(to sleep) He goes to church every Sunday.(to pray)

21 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

After the crash, seven people were taken to hospital.(to be cured) He spend six months in prison.(to be punished) After I leave school, I want to go to university.(to study) Ken is a seaman.He spent most of his life at sea.(to seal) h) 当cinema, theatre, radio等名词表示“看电影，看戏，听无线电”时，一般要用the 。例如：

We went to the cinema last night.Do you often go to the theatre? I heard the news on the radio.但television 用于表示“看电视”是，不用the 。如：
I watched the news on TV。

2）专有名词前定冠词的主要用法

a) 一般不用于单数人名前，但特指或强调是需用the 如：
He’s the Mr.Smith I saw yesterday.复数人名前要用the

b) 不用于“头衔+人名”前，但有头衔无人名是需用the表示特指。例如：
I saw Queen Elizabeth when I was in London.I saw the Queen when I was in London.c) 不用国家，省市等名词前，但由短语组成的国名，或以s结尾的国家名前要用the .例如：

the Philippine

the Netherlands

the United States

the United Kingdom

注：the Ukraine the Congo

the Sudan

the Hague为例外

d) 用于表示国籍、民族的名词前。例如：
the British

the Chinese

e) 用于表示地区的名词前。例如：
the Middle East

the Far East f) 不用于街道,建筑物等名词前,但有of介词短语修饰时，需用the .例如：
Broadway

Red Square

the Tower of London g) 用于河流，海洋，群岛，山脉，海峡，海湾等名词前。例如：
the Miiippi

the Atlantic

the Persian Gulf

22 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

h) 不用于大学名称前，但有of介词短语修饰时，需用the .例如：
Yale University

Oxford University

the University of North Carolina i) 不用于杂志名词前，但用于报纸名词前。例如：
Newsweek

Natural History The Daily News

the Washington Post

三、一些常用限定词的区别及使用

1）a lot of, plenty of, many, much, (a) few, (a)little a)a lot, lots of, plenty of 这几个限定词既可以和可数名词搭配也可与不可数名词搭配。例如：
a lot of people/luck

lots of books/time plenty of ideas/money

lots of多用于非正式文体

2）much, many a.much many常用于否定句和疑问句。例如：
We didn’t spend much money.Did you spend much money? I haven’t made many mistakes.How many mistakes have you made? Much many 处于主语位置时常用于肯定句。例如：
Much efforts is needed to complete the project.Many languages are spoken in the United States.too much/many, so much/many多用于肯定句。例如：
He’s got so much money ,he doesn’t know what to do with it.Robert has written too many letters.3)(a) little, (a) few little few 前加a 表示虽少但有，无则表示几乎没有。例如：
let’s go and have a drink.We’ve got a little time before we leave.I enjoy my life here.I have a few friends and we meet quite often.4)some any no a)some any no 既可用于可数名词也可用于不可数名词，表示不肯定的数量。

I must write some letters, so I need some paper.

23 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

We have hardly any coffee left.Have you ever been to any interesting places? any常用于否定句或疑问句,some用于肯定句。

Have you got any razor-blades.

Sorry ,I haven’t got any zazor-bladers.特殊用法与more连用

Please give me some more.Have you any more of those? There is no more cake.Some any 与单数可数名词连用时表达的特殊意义。

Any body in the cla can pa the exam.Some idiot parked his car outside the garage.5)another

a) 只用于单数可数名词，指再一，另一 Ted want another cup of coffee.也可与one搭配；
或单独使用。

This shirt is soiled.I am going to put on another one.This gla is broken.Get me another.b) 在表示时间，金钱，距离等的短语前，可用于有数词修饰的复数名词前。

I will be here for another three years.I need another five dollars.c) 常与它连用的短语 one after another one another 6)other a) other既可用于可数名词也可用于不可数名词，others只能单独使用。

This bread seems stale.Is there any other.? The prefers this coffee to other kinds.Some of the tourists went to the beach, others explored the town.

24 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

b) some , any, no, every与other连用时，其后若用可数名词，一般用单数。

The secretary told tom to come back some other time.No other book has had a greater influence on my life.c) none other than不是别人，正是, other than除。。。。。。以外

The man who had sent the flowers was none other than the one she had spoken to the night before.There was nothing to do other than wait 7）both, all 1)用法 a)作限定词

Both banks of the river were covered in bushes.Both his sisters are tall.All six boys arrived late.All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.b)作代词

Both of the brothers are honest.Bill visited all of us.That’s all I want to say.2)位置

All my flowers are dead.

Both my sisters want to go.My flowers are all dead.

My sisters both want to go.不能说my all flowers

my both sisters

3)与否定词连用时，均表示部分否定。

He hasn’t paid it all.(=he has paid some of the money.)

I can’t promote both of you .(=I can promote one of you.)

4)all与whole的区别

a)whole用于单数可数名词前；
all既可用于复数可数名词前，也可用于不可数名词前。

The spent the whole evening watching television.

All the bottles were broken.

All the ink was spilt.

25 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

b)all (the)与the whole常可通用

He spent all (the)day / the whole day in the library.

5)由all构成的常用短语

a)all but

what you say is all but impoible.

b)all the same

the cold weather causes him to get up all the earlier.

c)for all

I wouldn’t like to be in his position, for all his weath.

8)each every

1)意义

a)every 虽然指每个人，实际上是指全体。

Every student has a dictionary b) each强调具体每个人。

Each student has a dictionary.2)用法

a)each 既可用作代词，又可用作限定词；
every只能用作限定词。

Each knows what he should do.

Each man knows what he should do.3)位置

each的位置比较灵活。

Tom and I each made different suggestions.

They were each praised for their suggestions.4)everyone与every one 的区别

everyone指人；
every one指人或物。

He gave a box of chocolates to every one of the girls.

Examine every one of the glaes carefully.

四、练习见书101， 120

第十四讲从句

（一）

教学目的：

要求学生掌握状语从句的分类和状语从句的用法。

26 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

教学步骤：

1.介绍状语从句的分类。 2 各种状语从句。

2.要求学生做课堂练习。.3.课外作业,完成剩余练习。

教学过程：

一.状语从句概述

英语中的状语从句有九大类。这九类从句是：时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、比较、方式。尽管数目较多，但理解并不难。

从本质上来说，状语从句就是用不同的连词将几个分句连接起来，以表达分句之间特定的逻辑关系。例如：

a.I’ve brought my umbrella in case rains.b.I’ve brought my umbrella because it’s raining.c.I’ve brought my umbrella so that I don’t get wet.d.I’ve brought my umbrella even though it’s raining.e.You don’t need an umbrella unle it’s raining. 因此，学习状语从句关键是要掌握引导九类状语从句的有关连接词。只要记住连接词一般都能识别是何种状语从句，从而正确分析句子结构并理解句子意思。

状语从句的省略

在同时满足以下两点的情况下：1)当主句的主语和从句的主语一致；
2)从句谓语中含有be动词。可将从句的主语和be动词省去。这种省略主要常见于时间、地点、条件及让步状语从句中。

a.Metals expand when (they are)heated and contract when (they are)cooled. b.When (he was)a student in the university, he read a lot. c.While (he was)waiting, he took out a magazine to read. d.When I was ten years old, my family moved to the city.二.各类状语从句

状语从句主要分为：
1.时间状语从句

1)时间状语从句要用一般现在时表示将来

a.I’ll speak to him when he arrives.不说：„„when he will arrive。

b．I’ll tell him about it when he comes back。不说：„„when he will come。

2)when 意思相当于：at that time(在„„时刻)，从句谓语动词通常是短暂动词，表示某一时刻的

27 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

动作。注意主句和从句的时态。

a．I’ll speak to him when he arrives。

b．When I got there， he had already left。

从句也可直接延续动词，这时从句往往用过去进行时态，表示某一时间段内发生的动作。

a.The doorbell rang when I was telephoning.3)while 意思相当于: during that time(在„„期间)，表示某一时间段内发生的动作，因此，从句谓语动词通常只接持续动词。

a.The doorbell rang while we were watching TV.b.A detective(n.侦探)arrested a criminal and was about to handcuff(v.上手铐)him when a huge gust(n.一阵狂风)of wind blew off the detective’s hat. 4)until ① 当主句谓语动词是延续动作时，通常用肯定形式。例如：

a.Wait until he comes back.b.We’ll stay here till it stops raining.② 若主句谓语动词是短暂动词，则要用否定形式。这就是我们常说的“not„until„„(直到„„才„„)”的结构。

a.I did not realize how special my mother was until I became an adult.b.Ice cream did not reach America until about the middle of the eighteenth century.③ 我们还可以把not until变成倒装句型: a.Not until 12 o’clock last night did I go to bed.b.Not until his bo come back did he leave the office. 5)表示“一„就„”

表示“一„就„”的连词有：as soon as，once，immediately，the moment。这些连词后边通常都是接短暂动词，表示一点动作。

a.We will leave as soon as it stops raining.b.Once it stops raining, we will leave.c.It began to rain immediately I arrived home.6)by the time by the time意思是“在„„之前”，强调的是“一个动作在另外一个动作之前已经完成(one event is completed before another event)”，因此，与by the time搭配的主句要用完成时态。

2.地点状语从句

1)通常由where引导 a.Stay where you are.b.A driver should slow down where there are schools.

28 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

2)也可由wherever,、anywhere和everywhere引导地点状语从句。

a.Wherever he happens to be, Clint can make himself at home.b.Everywhere they appeared, there were ovations.3)地点状语从句有时含有条件意味

a.Where there is a will, there is a way.b.Wherever there is love, there is also wealth and succe! 3.原因状语从句

引导原因状语从句最常用的连词有：because，for，as，since。

1) because 语气最强,只有它才能用来回答why引导的问句。所引出的原因往往是听话人所不知道的或最感兴趣的原因。

a.You want to know why I am leaving? I am leaving because I’m fed up with the job and bo.b.My friends dislike me because I’m handsome and succeful.它可与强调词only、just连用。

a.Just because I don’t complain, people think I’m satisfied.b.You shouldn’t get angry just because some people speak ill of you.2)Since 表示人们已知的事实、不须强调的原因。所以常译成“既然„„”。通常放在主句前边。

a.Since everyone is here, let’s get started.b.Since you are an English major, I gue you can help me with this sentence. 3)As As与since用法差不多，所引出的理由在说话人看来已经很明显，或已成为人所熟悉而不须用because加以强调。

a.I left a meage as you weren’t there.b.I have to speak English with them, as the guys I live with don’t know any Chinese. 4)For 表示推断的理由，是对前面分句的内容加以解释或说明。通常放在主句后边。

a.The days are short, for it is now December.b.It must be morning, for the birds are singing.4.目的与结果状语从句 1)目的状语从句常见引导词

主要有:so，in order that。从句中常含有情态动词will/would或can/could。

a.I turned off the TV so that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.b.We climbed high so that we could get a better view.2)结果状语从句常见的连接词

29 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

主要有：so„that，such„that，从句中一般不带情态动词，且从句都要放在主句之后。

a.Sensible Sam: I saw you pushing your bicycle to work this afternoon.Foolish Fred: Yes, I was so late that I didn’t have time to get on it. b.The food is so bad in the school cafeteria that flies go there to lose weigh. 不要受汉语思维的影响，把这里的so改成very或too，常见于考试改错题。

3)注意下句中such和so的用法区别 so后边直接及形容词，such要先接冠词a(n) a.He is such a good teacher that everyone likes him.b.He is so good a teacher that everyone likes him.Such可修饰不可数名词，so不可：

c.It was such nice weather that we went to the beach.d.It was so nice weather that we went to the beach e.The weather was so nice that we went to the beach.Such可修饰复数名词，so不可：

f.He got such heavy boxes that he couldn’t carry by himself.So可与many，much，few，little搭配，such不可：
g.I made so many mistakes that I failed the exam.h.He has so few friends that he is always lonely.5.条件状语从句

条件从句由下列词来引导: if，unle，suppose(that)，supposing(that)，on condition that，providing/provided(that)，so long as，as long as a.If it rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella.b.Don’t worry about the mistakes you may make in conversation, so long as you can make yourself understood in English.c.I may lend you the book on condition that you return it to me in time.6.让步状语从句

1)常见的让步状语从句的引导词

主要有：thought，although，even though，even if 注意：主句前不可用but，但可用yet/still。

a.Though/Although he tried hard, (yet/still)he failed.b.The family is the eential presence-the thing that never leaves you, even if you find you have to leave it. 2)介词表示让步

(al)though是连词，后边只接从句(有时是省略形式的从句)，而despite，in spite of，for all是介词，后边只接名词(短语)，不接从句。注意比较下列句子：

30 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

a.Though he was inexperienced, he did a very good job.= In spite of his inexperience, b.Although it was dangerous, „„ = Despite the danger 3)While位于句首，一般表示“尽管„”，引导让步状语从句。

a.While I sympathize(同意)your point of view, I can not accept it. b.While he has time, it doesn’t mean he has capacity and patience. 4)As引导的倒装句，表示让步。

句型：adj.+ as+主语+谓语

a.Young as he is, he is knowledgeable.b.Poor as he is, he is kind and honest. 前置的也可以是：名词或副词。例如：

c.Much as I respect him, I can not agree with him.d.Hard as he tried, he failed the exam again.7.比较状语从句（略） 8.方式状语从句

方式状语从句表示主句动作的方式，引导词有：as，as if，as though，the way等。请看例句：

a.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.b.Do as I say, not as I do.三.练习

要求学生做练习P557 四.作业

要求学生完成剩余练习。

第十五讲从句

（二）

教学目的：

要求学生掌握定语从句及其用法,掌定语从句中引导词的用法、限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句的区别、定语从句和主语从句的区别。

教学步骤：

1.介绍定语语从句的作用。 2 定语从句中引导词的用法。

3.限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句的区别 4.定语从句和主语从句的区别 5.要求学生做课堂练习。.

31 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

6.课外作业,完成剩余练习。

教学过程：

一定语从句概述

1.形容词作定语和从句作定语

在英文中，很多时候我们可以用一个形容词作定语来修饰一个名词(见下表例句)，但是如要表达更为复杂的意思，简单地用形容词作定语就无能为力了，我们就要借助于一个句子来修饰名词，用作名词的定语，对名词进行限制。

2.定语从句的两个重要概念：先行词和关系词

1)先行词：被定语从句所修饰或限制的对象称为先行词。上句中the people即为先行词。

2)关系词：重复指代先行词、起连接主句和从句的作用并且在定语从句中充当一定成分的连词。上句中的who即为关系词。因此关系词有两个作用：a)代词作用:重复指代先行词并且在定语从句中充当一定成分,上述例句中who作主语；
b)连接作用：起连接主句和从句的作用。

3)主句和从句：上句中I don’t like the people.是独立主句；
who are lazy/never on time.则是定语从句。

二.引导词的用法

一).关系代词的用法引导定语从句的关系代词有：
先行词指人：who，whom；

先行词指物：which；

先行词指人或指物均可：that，whose。

下面一一详细介绍这些词的用法。

先行词指人，用关系代词who/whom 1.先行词指人才能用who/whom 先看两个简单句：

a.The woman is a famous dancer and she lives next door.这位女士是一名著名的舞蹈演员，她就住在我家隔壁。

上述两个简单句有一个“重复元素”：这里的she就指代the woman，两句之间有个交叉点，而通过这个交叉点建立起两句之间的关系，所以定语从句也称之为关系从句(relative clause)。我们现在要用she lives next door来作定语修饰the woman，以告诉对方哪个woman是舞蹈演员。而在定语从句中，代指人的关系词用who。前面说过关系词既有代词作用又还起着连接的作用，因此，上句可改写成：

The woman is a famous dancer who lives next door.定语从句一般紧跟在它所修饰的名词后边。因此，上句也可进一步写成：
The woman who lives next door is a famous dancer.关系词who既指代the woman，同时又在从句中作成分——从句的主语。

32 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

b.He who is not handsome at twenty，nor strong at thirty，nor richat forty，nor wise at fifty，will never be handsome，strong，rich，or wise.c.There is this difference between happine and wisdom：the person who thinks himself the happiest man really is so；
but the person who thinks himself the wisest the generally the greatest fool.2.who和whom的区别

1)who在定语从句中可做主语、宾语或表语，但who之前不可用介词(如不能说with who，而是with whom)。

a.I like the people who I work with.b.I like the people with whom I work.c.I’m talking about friends with whom you can share almost everything.表示人或物的所有关系，用whose 我们用whose表示所有关系。它的作用就如同物主代词my，your，her，their，our一样，whose后边要接名词。Whose可指人也可指物。“whose +名词”在从句中可作主语、动词宾语或介词宾语。

a.When I looked through the window，I saw a girl whose beauty took my breath away.b.Atlas(in Greek mythology)was a kneeling man on whose shoulders the world rested.3.先行词指物，用关系代词which We are studying sentences.They contain adjective clauses.同样道理，我们用which代替they，来指代sentences，告诉对方我们正在学习什么类型的句子。

which可以指代单个名词：

a．Anger is a wind which blows out the lamp of the mind。

b．Perhaps it is human to appreciate little that which we have and to long for that which we have not。

Which可以指代一个短语：

He likes climbing mountains，which is a good exercise。

Which可以指代前面整个句子

a．Tom was late，which surprised me。

b．She wore her swimming things in the office, which shocked her bo a great deal.4.that可以指代人，也可以指代物

that既可指人，也可指物；
that不用在非限制性定语从句中；
(关于限制性和非限制性定语从句，第四节详细讨论)that不能用于介词后边，这同who一样。

1)当先行词既是有人又有物时，用that。

The writer and his novels that the article deals with are quite familiar to us.2)先行词为指物的all，little，few，much，none，the，frist，用that。

33 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

a.All that glitters is not gold.b.There is not much that can be done.3)先行词是不定代词something，anything，nothing，everything时，一般用that。

Is there anything that I can do for you？

4)先行词被any，only，all，every，no，some，much，few，little，序数词，最高级，the only，the one，the every，the right，the last修饰时，用that。

a.There is no difficulty(that) they can’t overcome.b.The very problem that I want to solve is like this.5.在从句中作宾语的关系代词可以省去

上述关系代词who，whom，which，that若在定语从句中用作宾语，我们往往可以省去关系代词。例如：

a.Tina likes the present I gave her for her birthday.b.I like the people I work with.二).关系副词的用法

在英语中，引导定语从句的关系副词主要有when，where，why，它们在从句中分别作时间状语、地点状语和原因状语。

1.when的用法

1)先行词指时间

when引导限制性和非限制性定语从句，其先行词须是表示时间的名词，如day，year，time等。when可用on which来替换。

a.I’ll never forget the day when I met you.b.I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.c.March 10,1876 was the day when(=on which)the first complete sentence was sent over a telephone.2)关系副词when在从句中作时间状语

当心：表示时间的先行名词，若定语从句不是缺状语，而是缺少主语或宾语，要用which或that来引导定语从句。因为用when来引导定语从句的前提条件是：when在其引导的定语从句中作时间状语。

a.The day, which began brightly, ended with a violent storm.b.I’ll never forget the time which I sepent on campus.2.where 的用法

1)where的先行词指地点

where引导定语从句，其先行词必须是表示地点的名词，如place，house等。

a.——Since you work in the theater，can’t you get me a free ticket now and then?.b.Do you know any place where I can buy Clint’s grammar book? 2)关系副词where在从句中的作地点状语

34 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

当心：与when类似，并非凡是表示地点的名词，都得由where来引导定语从句，这得看关系词在从句中充当的成分。Where在定语从句中作地点状语，若定语从句缺主语或宾语，要用which或that来引导定语从句。

a.This is the town where I spent my childhood.b.This is the town which I told you about before.Which作about的宾语

a.The library, which was built in the 1930’s, needs to be renovated.b.One of the places which I want to visit someday is Tibet.(which 作宾语) 3.why的用法

用来表原因，只引导限制性定语从句，先行词是reason等表示原因的名词。

This is the reason why I didn’t come here.三.限制性和非限制性定语从句

英语中的定语从句有限制性和非限制性之分。二者在形式上的区别是：限制性定语从句的关系词和先行词之间不用逗号分开，而非限制性定语从句则有逗号分开。这种在形式上的有逗号或没有逗号并不是随意的，换句话说，二者更重要的是在意义上有区别。根据意义上的差别，我们可以把定语从句分三种情况来分析。

24.不用逗号隔开——限制性定语从句

作用：用来提供必要的信息，以说明定语从句所修饰的先行词的身份或性质，或用来限制先行词所指的范围。若去掉限制性定语从句，则主句部分含义不明确，或意义不完整。

I don’t like people who are never on time. 以上句子黑体部分的定语从句都是用来说明people的性质，是必不可少的信息内容。因此不能用逗号把它变为非限制性定语从句。

a.There are two factors which determine an individual’s intelligence.b.People who live in glahouse shouldn’t throw stones.25.用逗号隔开——非限制性定语从句

作用：用来提供附加的而非必要的信息，只是对先行词作进一步的解释、补充或说明。若去掉此定语从句，整个主句意义一样很明确，不会引起误解和歧义。

a.Beijing, which is the capital of China, has developed into an international city.b.Einstein, who was a great Jewish scientist, created the theory of relativity.以上句中的定语从句都是对它前面的先行词进行补充说明,向读者提供附加的信息。均不能变为限制性定语从句。

总的原则：如果定语从句修饰一个专有名词，我们一般要用逗号，也就是说要用非限制性定语从句。这是因为专有名词本身意思已经很完整，不需要限制，用定语从句只是对它进行补充。

四.that引导定语从句和同位语从句的区别

27.that引导定语从句和同位语从句的区别

35 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

1)that是否作成分

that在定语从句中充当成分；
在同位语从句中不作任何成分，仅起连接作用。

a.The rumor that he spread everywhere turned out to be untrue.b.The rumor that Tom was a thief turned out to be untrue. 以上两句先行词都是the rumor，连接词都是that。但a.句中的that在从句he spread everywhere中作成分，充当spread的宾语。故为定语从句。

b.句中的that在从句Tom was a thief中不作任何成分，从句Tom was a thief是一完整的句子，不缺任何成分。故其为同位语从句，作the rumor的同位语，补充说明the rumor的具体内容。

2)从句的作用

定语从句相当于形容词，它对先行词起修饰、描述、限制的作用；
同位语从句相当于一个名词，它是前面名词的内容的具体表述，二者是同位关系。

b.The news that you heard is not true.c.The news that Lincoln was murdered at a theatre is true.五练习

要求学生做练习P563。

第十六讲虚拟语气

（一）

教学目的：

要求学生掌握虚拟语气及其用法。

教学步骤：

1.非真实条件句。 2.要求学生完成练习。.教学过程：

虚拟语气概述

语气(mood)是英文中一种动词形式，它用来表示说话者的意图和态度。在英文中语气可分为三种：陈述语气(indicative mood)，祈使语气(imperative mood)和虚拟语气(subjunctive mood)。

在一些场合里，当说话者谈到自己的与实际情况相反的愿望时，主观想象某事有可能发生时，或建议、要求某事发生时，就需要借助于虚拟语气来表达他的这些心态。

一非真实条件虚拟句

1)三种形式

非真实条件从句，顾名思义，它是用来描述说话人想象的、非真实的情景，这些情景通常是不可能发生的，与客观实际相反的，或发生的可能性极小，只表示说话者的一种主观愿望、假象和建议等等。它可以表示现在、过去、将来的事实进行虚拟，主句和If从句中的谓语动词形式

36 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

列表如下：

虚拟语气的三种基本形态：

表示虚拟 IF从句的主句谓语形式的时间谓语形式

现在 Did or were Would(should, might, could)+to 过去 Had done or had been Would(should, might, could)+have done(been) 将来 Were to(should)+do Would(should, might, could)+do ①与现在事实相反：

a.If I could rearrange the alphabet, I’d put U and I together. b.If I had enough money, I would run a company of my own.c.If all difficulties were known at the outset of a long journey, most of us would never start out at all.d.I have often though it would be a bleing if each human being were stricken blind and deaf for a few days at some time during his early adult life.Darkne would make him more appreciative of sight；

silence would teach him the joys of sound.②与过去事实相反

a．If you had invited Wealth or succe, the other two of us would’ve stayed out, but since you invited Love, wherever he goes, we go with him.Wherever there is Love, there is also Wealth and Succe! b.You would have mied the train if you had not hurried.c.If the flowers had been planted earlier, they would have been in bloom for the garden party last week.③与将来事实相反

a.If I should win the lottery, I would buy a car. b.If he were to come here, how would you tell him about this? c.Sometimes I have thought it would be an excellent rule to live each day as if we should die tomorrow.Such an attitude would emphasize sharply the values of life. 2)混合时间虚拟句

前面介绍的三种基本形态的虚拟语气，其If从句中谓语动词表示的动作与主句谓语动词表示的动作发生的时间是一致的，即同为现在、过去或将来。可是当二者动作发生的时间不一致时，主句和从句各自的谓语形式要根据它们动作发生的时间按照上述原则作适当调整。常见的混合时间是：从句表示过去，主句表示现在。请看例句：

a.If I had not studied English, I would never be here to teach you grammar today. Had not studied是对过去的事实进行虚拟，would never be是对现在的事实进行虚拟。

c.If they had invested in that stock, they might be wealthy now.d.A: I don’t like my mother-in-law.

37 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

B: Listen, don’t you realize that you couldn’t have your wife if it hadn’t been for your mother-in-law? A: Yes, that’s why I don’t like her. 3)倒装虚拟句

当If条件句中有助动词should，had或were时，则可以省去if，而将sdhould，had或were置于句首，从而构成倒装虚拟句，意义不变。

a.Had he not been promoted, he would never have remained with the company. b.Were he to leave today, he would get there by Monday. c.Should you change your mind, no one would blame you. 4)含蓄虚拟句

我们前面讨论的虚拟句，都含有虚拟的条件从句。含蓄虚拟句是指没有完整的条件从句，但在上下文隐含了虚拟条件的意味。隐含的条件意味可以通过下列方式表达：

①介词或介词短语

a.What would I have done without you? b.In his position, I would commit myself.c.Anyone in his position would have done it like that.d.Before liberation, such floods would have caused terrible disaster.e.But that the doctor arrived on time that day.f.But that he needed money desperately, he would never have turned to his brother for help. 注意：but for或but that意为“若不是„” but for + 名词短语

but that +从句(谓语动词用陈述语气，如g，h句) 可表示对过去、或现在、将来的虚拟

表示对现在、将来的虚拟，but for相当于If it were not for„(如e句)；
表示对过去的虚拟，but for相当于if it had not been for„„(如d句)。其中介词for不能省。

5）.跳层虚拟句

这是一类较为特殊的虚拟语气。这类句子一般分为两部分，两部分在语气上截然相反，一部分虚拟，另一部分不虚拟，而用的是陈述语气，用以陈述一件事实。它们二者之间往往有but，or，or else，otherwise来连接。正是因为这种虚拟和不虚拟兼而有之一部分虚拟，一部分又跳出虚拟的圈子，故而得此名。

１)虚拟句+but+陈述句

a．He would put on weight，but he doesn’t eat much．

b．I would have gone to visit him in the hospital，had it been at all poible，but I _____fully occupied the whole of last week． A．were

38 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

B．had been e have been D．was 正确答案：D。

2)陈述句+or else+虚拟句

a．I didn’t know the extent of his difficulty, or else I would have promised to help him. b.In other words “If I remembered where I read the article, I would show it to you now.”

c.He must have had an accident，or he______ then． A.would have been here B.should be here C.had to be here D.would be there 二.课堂练习

要求学生做练习P284。

第十七讲虚拟语气

（二）

教学目的：

要求学生掌握虚拟语气及其用法。

教学步骤：

1.名词从句与虚拟语气。 2其它虚拟语气。

3要求学生完成练习。.教学过程：

一名词从句虚拟句

虚拟语气除了在上述非真实条件从句中应用以外，在特定的名词从句中也需要用虚拟语气。这里所说的“特定的名词从句”，是指这样的名词从句中均要含有特定的标志词，这些标志词可用来表示愿望、建议、命令、请求、意志等语气。而且，与非真实条件虚拟句中主句和从句谓语动词形式完全不同的是，名词从句虚拟句谓语变化形式只有一条规律，那就是：名词从句虚拟句无论主句的谓语动词是何种形式，从句谓语形式均为：should+动词原形，should可以省去。这里特别提醒注意的是：不是用would，而是用should。

先看下例：

I suggest that we should so tomorrow．

39 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

I suggested that we should go the next day． 1)在下列词的宾语从句中，从句谓语须用（should)+do的形式

ask(要求，请求)，advise，beg，command，demand，decide，deserve，desire，determine，insist, move(动议，提议)，order，prefer，propose，require，recommend，request, suggest，urge等。

a．His father urged that he study me dicine．(不用studies) b．The chine se government and people have demanded that the US Government shoulder all the responsibilities for the incident，apologize to the Chinese side and take effective measures to prevent the recurrence of such incidents． 2)it is+形容词或过去分词或特定的名词+that的主语从句中。

①接这种结构的形容词有：astonishing，amazing，advisable，appropriate，crucial，desirable，eential，important，imperative， keen，neceary，natural，normal，odd，proper，preferable，strange，sorry，shocked，surprising，urgent，unusual，vital等。这些形容词一般表示个人对事件的反应。

a．It is natural that l should dwell upon his succees rather than upon his failures． b．It is strange that he should not come here．

c．It’s eential that people be psychologically able to resist the impact brought about by the transition from planned economy to market economy．

②接这种结构的特定的名词有：advice，decision，desire demand，suggestion，motion，pray，resolution，wish，preference，proposal，recommendation，requirement，idea，order等。

It is my proposal that he be sent to study further abroad．

3)在上述名词的表语从句和同位语从句中

a．For my own part，it seems that the main requirement of an international language is that it be easily learned．

b．The motion that the meeting be adjourned was adopted．

c.Reports indicate that both sides have softened their respective positions for a poible settlement.The government has backed away from demands that the software giant be broken up, while Microsoft is now more willing to accept restrictions on how it manages its busine.二其他虚拟句型

在英文中，除了上述两大类虚拟句以外，还有其他一些句型表示的虚拟语气。它们无法列入上述任何一类，所以在此将它们一一单列，分别讨论。

1)在wish后的宾语从句中

这是大家非常熟悉的一个虚拟句型，它用来表示说话者的难以实现的或与事实违背的愿望，具有较强的感情色彩。可分别表示对现在、过去和将来情景的虚拟。

40 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

①对现状表示的愿望，从句谓语动词用过去时，意指从句谓语和主句谓语所表示的动作同时发生。

a．1 wish 1 were a little younger．

b．1wishlcould travel to the moon．(But l can’t do that．) c．1 wish l knew his addre．(But l don’t know his addre) ②对过去发生的事情表示遗憾、后悔，从句谓语动词用过去完成时(had done)或would／could+／现在完成时，意指从句谓语动词所表示的动作发生在主句谓语所表示的动作之前。

a．1 wish l had been there．

b．1 wish I had not attended that party．

③对将来发生的事情表示祝愿，从句谓语动词用would／could+动词原形，意指从句谓语动词所表示的动作可能发生在主句谓语所表示的动作之后。

a．1wishhecouldexplainwhathemeans．

b．1wishyou would shut Up．

注意：即使将wish改为wished，上述例句谓语时态仍然不变。

2)在If only感叹句中

If only表示“但愿”、“要是„就好了”，它的用法和wish基本相同，可表示对现在、过去、将来的虚拟，只是比wish更具有强烈的感情色彩。

a．If only he had followed your advice!(对过去虚拟) b If only l were taller．(对现在虚拟) c．If only the rain would stop．(对将来虚拟) 3)在as if／as though从句中

①表示和现在事实相反或对现在情况有所怀疑，谓语用过去时。

a．I really don’t care for the way you’re speaking to me．It seems as if you were my father．

②表示与过去事实相反，谓语用过去完成时。

b．We have not seen each other for ten solid years，but when we encountered on the street that day，we were still so affectionate that it seemed as if not a single day had gone by．

注意：若从句中的情形是根据现在迹象作出推测，有可能发生，则用陈述语气。

a．It is becoming dark．It looks as if it’s going to rain． b．It seems as if he has been to America． 4)在it is(high)time(that)从句中

表示“该是„的时候了”，含有“晚了一点”的意思，从句中用过去时。

a．Don’t dawdle away your youth any more．n is time you。thought about your future． b．It seems to be high time that this argument______ put to an end． A.must be

41 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

B.is C.were D.should be 正确答案: C 5)在would rather，would(just)as soon，would sooner，would prefer等从句中

意指某人宁愿让另一个人做某事。其后的宾语从句的谓语应该用虚拟语气：(1)表示现在或将来要做的事，从句谓语须用一般过去时；
(2)表示过去已经做的事，从句谓语则用过去完成时。

a．I’d just as soon you didn’t，speak rudely to her． b．I’d as soon, you hadnt, spoken rudely to her．

c．She says she’d rather he left tomorrow instead of today．(不用would leave)

三、要求学生完成练习P287。

第十八讲倒装

教学目的：

要求学生掌握倒装句及其条件，用法。

教学步骤：

1.部分倒装。 2 全部倒装。

3.要求学生做课堂练习。.4.课外作业,完成剩余练习。

教学过程：
一.部分倒装

倒装在英文中是一种较常见的语法现象。从结构上来讲，倒装句可分为：全部倒装和部分倒装。

全部倒装：将整个谓语部分全部放在主语之前。

部分倒装：只将谓语的一部分(如助动词或系动词)放在主语前面，其余部分仍在主语之后。

a．Now comes your turn． b．Could you show me that book? 1.句首有否定词或否定短语时，句子要部分倒装。

①常见的否定词有：never，hardly，scarcely，little，seldom, not，not until，rarely，no sooner．．．than，nowhere，etc．

a．Nowhere in the world can you find a man who is more foolish than John．

42 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

b．No sooner had I taken a bath than the bell rang． c．Never before have I heard such a story．

d．Never have I heard American music played better in a foreign land．

e．Not only did we lose all our money，but weal so came close to losing our lives．

②常见的否定短语有：in no way，in no case，at no time，by no means，in no sense，on no account，under no circumstances。这些否定短语常放在句首，表示强调，译为“绝不„”。大家一定要记住它们规定的介词搭配。

a．In no way do I blame you for what happened． b.On no account——rudene from his employees． A．the manager will tolerate B.the manager will not tolerate C.the manager tolerates D．will the manager tolerate 正确答案：D。

③如果否定词不是修饰整个句子，而只是限定句子主语，则句子不用倒装。

Scarcely a sound came from among the crowd．

2 “So+形容词或副词”及“to the extent／degree”放在句首，表示程度，句子要倒装。

a．To such an extent did his health deteriorate that he was forced to retire． b．So diligently does he work that he often forgets to eat and sleep． 3.在含有were，had，should的虚拟语气中，省去if须倒装。

4.as引导的让步状语从句须倒装。

a．Look as 1 would up and down，I could see no men at all． b．Change your mind as you will，you won’t gain his support． 5.“only+状语”置于句首。

①only+表示时间或方式的短语置于句首。

a．Only then did she realize she was wrong． b．Only by working hard can you achieve your goal．

c．Only by having an independent ego can women fully control their own lives．

②only若加各类状语从句置于句首，则注意是主句中的主谓须倒装，而不是从句中的主谓倒装，这一点与not until同。

a．Only when he had failed times did he turn to me for advice．

b．Only when a man’s life comes to its end in prosperity dare we pronounce him happy． c．An intimate relationship does not banish loneline．Only when we are comfortable with who we are and can function independently in a healthy way，can we truly function within a relationship．Two halves do not make a whole when it comes to a healthy relationship：it takes two wholes．

43 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

③若only修饰的是句子主语，而非状语时，句子不用倒装。

Only she knew how to deal with this problem． 6.代词so，neither，nor，no more置于句首 a．I can’t speak French，nor can he．

b.he had no money, nor did he know anyone he could borrow from. 此外，要注意：这种结构也可用来表达对别人讲的情况有同感时，此时不用倒装。

A: It’s a very nice day. B: So it is.7.让步状语从句的倒装句：be it…

a.The busine of each day, be it selling goods or shipping them, went quite smoothly. b.Be he ever so tired, he continued to go farther.二.全部倒装

1.以介词开头的地点状语置于句首

a.From the window came sound of music. b.On the ground lies a man whose leg is broken. c.By his side sat his faithful dog.2.副词out，in ，along，then，now，up，down，away，here，there等位子句首时 a．In came the teacher，books under arm． b．Just then along came Tom．

c．When Greek meets Greek，then comes the tug of war．

D．As a gift，Zeus gave Pandora a box，but to1d her never to open it.However，as soon as he was out of sight she took off the lid，and out swarmed all the troubles of the world．Only Hope was left in the box，stuck under the lid． 3.such位于句首

a．Such will be my future dreams. b．Such is my whole story． c．Such were his dreams as a boy． 4.表语置子句首

．

a．Bleed is the person who is too busy to worry in the daytime and too sleepy to worry at night．

b．Gone are the days when we had no food to eat．

c．Gone are the days when you had to get dreed up to make an impreion．On the net，you can dre down，slouch in your seat and disguise yourself as a prince charming．

44 英语语法教案喀什师范学院外语系

三.练习

要求学生完成练习P7431-20。

汉语语法教案

基本教学目的要求：

本章讲解了现代汉语的语法单位，词类，各类词的用法，短语结构的类型，句子分析和句子的类型，句子的复杂化和句式的变化等，使学生系统掌握语法知识，掌握用词造句的规律，提高分析语句和识别、改正语法错误的能力。

重点及难点：

词类之间的区别；
复杂短语的层次分析；
一些常用虚词的用法；
句子分析及确定句型；
多重复句的分析；
识别和改正病句。具体说来，词类部分，以虚词为重点，以识别同形异类词为难点；
短语部分，以短语的结构类型为重点，以复杂短语的分析为难点；
单句部分，以句子成分的划分为重点，以句型的识别为难点；
复句部分，以复句类型为重点，以多重复句的分析为难点；
病句部分，以判别病句类型为重点，以如何修改为难点。

第一节语法概说

一、语法和语法体系

（一）语法是什么

讲语法，总要给语法下定义，然而语法的定义却是不大好下的。好的定义，应该符合准确、完备、简明三个条件。要做到这三条，是很困难的。高更生先生在《汉语语法专题研究》中所下的定义：“语法是语言中大小音义结合体的组合、聚合规律。”（见该书第2页，山东教育出版社，1990年7月第1版）应该说，是目前为止最理想的定义，它符合“准确、完备、简明”这三个条件。此定义中所说的“大小音义结合体”即指各级语法单位——语素、词、短语、句子。这些语法单位之间的关系，既有组合问题，又有聚合问题。所以上述定义很准确，又很完备，它排除了“语言结构”这种说法的笼统性，又将聚合现象包括了进来。同时它也是简明的。

（二）语法学的分类

语法学分词法学和句法学两个部分。词法学的研究范围是词的结构、词形变化和词类。句法学的研究范围是短语、句子的结构规律和类型。

词法和句法有相互依存的关系。（1）合成词的组合情况与短语的组合情况基本一致，即两者具有基本相同的组合规律：主谓、偏正、动宾、补充、联合。这说明汉语在词的构造和句法构造上有一种一以贯之的结构规律。（2）汉语词类划分的主要标准是语法功能，特别是词与词的组合情况和词充当句子成分的能力，而后者正是句法结构规律。例如，名词一般排斥副词，结合数量短语，动词、形容词正好相反。如“不黑板”“很粉笔”不说，可说“不走”“很好”。又以“看小说”为例，从词法进行分析，“看”是动词，“小说”是名词。定为动词、名词的依据很多，其中一个重要依据是“看”可以带宾语，经常作谓语；
“小说”经常做主语、宾语，而能否作主语、谓语、宾语等，正是词的句法特征，可见，词法是离不开句法的。从句法进行分析，“看小说”是动宾短语，这是因为动词“看”直接放在名词前，名词“小说”放在动词后，两者有支配与被支配的关系，即动宾关系。而“看”是动词，“小说”是名词，这些词类定名正是词的句法功能的体现。可见，句法和词法的关系十分密切。

二、语法单位和句法成分

（一）语法单位

语法单位可以分为四级：语素、词、短语、句子。

1．语素：语素是语言中最小的音义结合的构词单位，是语言的备用单位。语素可以组合成合成词，有的可单独成词。

2．词：词是最小的能够独立运用的语言单位，是构成短语和句子的备用单位，是材料。一部分词加上句调可以单独成句。例如：鱼！妙！好！票！ 3．短语：短语是语法上和语义上都能搭配的、没有句调的一组词，是造句的备用单位。大多数短语可以加上语调成为句子。从这里可以看出短语有以下特征：

（1）短语是交际造句的备用的材料单位，语言的静态单位，短语本身没有进入说话的语言环境，没有目的性、针对性，没有语调。因而短语不等于句子，虽然有的短语独立出来比某些句子还长，但对它所从属的句子来说，它永远是小于句子的。

（2）从语言单位看，短语是句子内部的语法单位，是从句子里分析出来的，因此，短语是介于词和句子之间的语法单位。

4．句子：句子是具有一个句调、能够表达一个相对完整的意思的语言单位。

（1）句子的特征：

①句子都与一定的说话环境（说话对象、时间、地点等）相联系，具有现实的针对性、目的性（告诉别人一件事、向别人提出一个问题、向别人命令或请求、表达一种强烈的感情）。这就与词、短语不同。如单说“鱼”是一个词，但别人钓鱼时，看见鱼上钩了，就高兴得说“鱼！”这时的“鱼”就是句子了。这里的“鱼！”之所以成为一个句子，是跟“钓鱼”这个环境有关，有一定的针对性、目的性，表达了一种惊喜的心情。又如“好文章”单说是一个偏正短语，但当语文老师在批改作文时，看到一篇写得十分精彩的文章，就激动得说“好文章！”这时，“好文章”就不再是短语了，而变成了名词性非主谓句。因此，词或短语如果具有了某种目的，就可以成为句子。

②句子有特定的句调。这是句子特有的，词、短语不具有。

③句子在材料上和结构方式上往往和词、短语等同。

词（短语）+句调=句子

（2）句子的种类

根据语气分出来的句子类型叫做句类。可分为四种：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。根据句子的结构分出来的句子类型叫句型。首先分出单句和复句。单句又可分主谓句和非主谓句。根据谓语的构成材料，主谓句分名词谓语句、动词谓语句、形容词谓语句、主谓谓语句。根据全句主要词语的词性，非主谓句又分五种：名词性非主谓句、动词性非主谓句、形容词性非主谓句、叹词性非主谓句、拟声词非主谓句。

（3）句子、短语、词三者的关系

句子和短语、词之间有密切的关系，词、短语构成句子，句子抛开句调就是词或者短语，因此，句子在材料上和结构方式上往往和词、短语相同。但是，词、短语同句子也有不同，它们的区别是：词、短语没有句调，没有目的性；
词、短语是语言的备用单位、静态单位，是构成句子的“材料”，句子是语言的使用单位、动态单位，是“成品”。短语和词加上句调后从备用单位（材料）变成使用单位（成品）——句子。

（二）句法成分

句法成分是短语和句法结构的组成成分。汉语的短语和句子大都是由较小的语言单位逐层组装起来的，按照不同的结构类型中的结构关系定出不同的句法成分。句法成分有8种：主语、谓语、动语、宾语、定语、状语、补语、中心语。这8种成分是句子的一般成分。独立语是句子的特殊成分。独立语包括插入语、称呼语、感叹语、拟声语四种。

三、中心词分析法

（一）中心词分析法

中心词分析法是一种传统的析句方法，又叫句子成分分析法，或叫多分法。大体上看，它把句子作为分析的对象，以找中心词为重点，以确定句子的六大成分，寻找句子的格局为目的，方法上以多分为主。中心词分析法不承认短语能作句子成分。如“小王认真地读完了马列的书。”一句采用中心词分析法便可作这样的分析：

小王 ‖[认真]地读〈完〉了（马列）的书主语

状语

谓语补语

定语

宾语

中心词分析法的优缺点：

1．优点

能表明词与词之间的接连关系，有利于说明词与句子成分之间的内在联系，提纲挈领，便于检查病句，便于教学；
重视中心词的分析，有利于认清句子的格局，这对初学语法的人有一定的帮助。但是中心词分析法存在不少缺点。

2．缺点

第一，中心词分析法原则上采取一词析出一个句子成分，不承认任何短语都可以充当句子成分，结果使短语的结构成分和句子的结构成分混淆在一起，看不清语法结构的层次关系，以致不利于准确理解句子的含义。例如：我买了一本最近出版的英汉词典。按中心词分析法，分析为“主语、谓语、定语、状语、定语、定语、宾语”一长串句子成分，看不出层次关系，而只看到某些词充当某成分。至于有歧义的结构，则更是无能为力。

第二，中心词分析法一般把句子分为六大成分，说主语、谓语是主要成分，其他是连带成分，或说主语、谓语、宾语是主要成分，其他的是连带成分。拿来一个句子，先找中心词，说这些中心词的关系是“主——谓”或“主——谓——宾”，这本来是它的优点，但如果不加条件限制，有时中心词之间的关系不能反映句子的实际内容。如“解放区的天是明朗的天”“中国人民是伟大的人民”，根据中心词来分析，则变成“天是天”“人民是人民”，莫知所云；
有时分析出来的意思完全相反，例如“他不是我们的敌人”分析成“他是敌人”，不分析还清楚，一分析反而糊涂了。

第三，彻底的中心词分析法缺点太明显了，分析具体句子往往行不通，就有不少改良的办法。比如，有些语法书在分析主谓句时，第一步先分成“主语部分”和“谓语部分”，这实际上已经超出了中心词分析法，而吸收了层次分析的方法，但是为了坚守中心词分析法，以致不承认“主语部分”“谓语部分”就是句子的成分，只说“主语部分主要的词是主语，谓语部分主要的词是谓语”，而主语是谓语陈述的对象，谓语是对主语加以陈述的，这就产生了矛盾。比如“读书很重要”“学习的敌人是自己的满足”，如果说“读书”“学习的敌人”不是主语，不是陈述的对象，“读”“敌人”才是主语，才是陈述的对象，这是说不通的。有的语法书也承认短语能作句子成分，只承认“并列结构”“主谓结构”“的字结构”这几种短语可作句子成分，不承认“偏正结构”“动宾结构”可以充当句子成分，理由很简单，如果偏正短语充当成分，等于定语、状语没有了，动宾短语充当成分，等于宾语没有了。还有的语法书认为“读书是很重要的”中的“读书”可作句子成分，即认为动宾短语也可作主语；
但却又认为“我读书”中的“读书”不能作句子成分，“读”和“书”才是句子成分，即不承认动宾短语可作谓语。同一个短语，一会儿可作句子成分，一会儿又不能作句子成分，这不是很矛盾吗？所以，一些改良法只是头痛医头，脚痛医脚，仍不能弥补中心词分析法的弱点。

《中学教学语法系统提要（试用）》的析句方法：

《提要》较好地结合了成分分析法和层次分析法，可以说是一个以结构主义语法体系为基础，同时采纳了传统语法的成果的综合系统。既能反映句子结构的客观层次，又能维持住句子的整个格局，并且对某些问题的处理也较灵活。

（1）保留了“中心词分析法”的某些优点，强调了“句子的主干”。

《提要》指出：“所有的单句，不论多么复杂，如果把它逐层压缩，就越来越简单，最后剩下的是这个句子的主干。一般地说，主干就是把所有的定、状、补语都压缩下来之后余下的部分。”并说：“遇到很复杂的句子，先把它的主干找出来，对于理解全句的意思有帮助。但是，必须注意：句子的主干不等于原来的句子，意思没有原句那样明确，有时甚至跟原句相去很远。”我们认为，上面这段话，从语法结构和句子意思两方面把问题说得较全面，抓住主干只是帮助分析和理解句子的一种方法，不见得都能完全圆满地揭示句子的构造和表达句子的意思。《提要》分析句子采用了“符号图示法”。“ = ”表主语，“ ─”谓语，“﹏ ”宾语，（）定语，[ ]状语，〈〉补语。

（2）吸收了层次分析法的基本观点，指出了句子结构的客观层次性。

《提要》认为句子是逐层组成的，句子的直接组成成分只有主语和谓语（多半由短语充任，因而有两个或两个以上的层次）。至于定、状、补及至宾语则只是短语（实即主语、谓语）中的成分，即是句子成分的成分。因此，它分析句子就基本上按照层次，但是不抛弃句子成分的名目，具体作业时多半采用“框式图解法”。不过，《提要》对分析句子还是采取了灵活的态度，它有时采用“符号图示法”，有时采用“框式图解法”，视具体情况而定，它认为分析句子可以根据目的和情况的不同，既可以在一个平面上，一次就分解开来，也可以逐层加以切分。

四、短语、句子分析的具体操作方法

（一）切分法（阶梯形图解法）

切分法是一种从大到小、由外向内的分解法。从左到右。

（二）类聚组合法（树形图解法）

类聚组合法是一种从小到大、由内向外的合成法。从右向左。

（三）简易线条符号标记法

简易线条符号标记法也是表示层次的。简易法只是把它立体的阶梯层次符号变成线性链条式的符号罢了。课堂练习：

1．做一个有理想有作为的大学生

2．我拿着书走进教室站着上课

3．他请李老师教孩子学外语

4．他送给图书馆两套书

5．看不看《子夜》这本书

6．世界珍贵稀有动物熊猫的故乡中国

从教学实践来看，似乎以采取“从大到小”的方式为好。因为，第一，从大到小的方式能够较好地反映切分过程，用起来比较方便。第二，从大到小的方式，不必一定要分析到最小的层次才算结束，可以适可而止，避免繁琐。第三，复句、句群的层次分析都是从大到小的，语句的分析也宜采取同一程序。

六、分析短语、句子、多重复句、多重句群的步骤

（一）分析短语、句子的步骤

1．首先排除语气词和特殊成分。（句子）

2．总观全局，决定最大的结构关系和切分线，把这个语言片断分成两大部分。一般的短语两分，连谓短语和联合短语多分，兼语短语三分。

3．逐层解剖，到词为止，固定短语不再分析。

切分短语必须遵循下列原则：

（1）被切分出来的各个部分都必须有一定的意义。如“孩子个个健康”，不能切分成“孩子个个/健康”，因为“孩子个个”没有意义，应当切分为“孩子/个个健康”。“一个有理想有作为的青年”不能切分为“一个有理想有作为/的青年”，因为“一个有理想有作为”没有意义，应当切分为“一个/有理想有作为的青年”。

（2）切分出来的各个直接成分之间，应能构成语义上的搭配关系。如“跑出来了一个人”，若切分为“跑出/来了一个人”，显然切分出来的两个部分都各有意义，但两个部分在语义上却不能构成任何搭配关系，应当切分为“跑出来了/一个人”。（动宾）

（3）切分出来的各个直接成分搭配起来必须符合语段的原意。如“穿好衣服，准备好书包就出了门”中的“穿好衣服”不能切分为“穿/好衣服”，虽然切分开的两个部分在语义上能构成搭配关系（动宾），但它不符合语段原意，原意是指“把衣服穿好”，只能切分为“穿好/衣服”。

（二）分析多重复句、多重句群的步骤

1．圈出关联词语，并注意关联词语所表示的意义关系。

2．鉴定出这个句子有多少个分句，这个句群有多少个句子，分别用①②③„„标出来。

3．找出第一个层次，用单竖线隔开，并标明是哪种意义关系。

4．逐层解剖，复句到单个分句为止，句群到单个句子为止。

①我们的确取得了很大的成绩，│②但是如果因为有了这些成绩，│││③就

转折

因果

骄傲起来，││││④并且认为可以歇一歇脚，││⑤那就不妥当了。

递进

假设

这句有5个分句，4组关联词语：但是、如果、因为、并且，由此可知，这个句子一定有转折关系、假设关系、因果关系、递进关系。根据分句与分句之间的内在联系我们就可以解剖这个复句了。

有些复句的关联词语不全出现，我们可以根据逻辑关系给它添上恰当的关联词语，这样，就便于看清层次。如：

①竹叶烧了，②还有竹枝；
③竹枝断了，④还有竹鞭；
⑤竹鞭砍了，⑥还有深埋在地下的竹根。

① ││② │ ③││④ │ ⑤││⑥

转折

并列

转折

并列

转折

这是一个二重复句，①和②，③和④，⑤和⑥之间都是转折关系。不少人误认为它们之间都是假设关系。如果联系课文来看，就不会判断错了。因为井冈翠竹象征的是井冈山人民，这个二重复句不仅揭露了敌人烧杀等罪行，而且歌颂了井冈山人民前仆后继的革命斗争精神。人民被屠杀是铁一般的事实，因而不属于假设，是转折。

泰州学院外国语学院 09英教

（五）学号：09952014 张茜

语法课教案 Unit 4 I.Teaching Objectives

1.Perception objective: a) The Ss can hear, read and use the main sentences patterns “What are you doing? I‟m…/We are…”

b) The Ss can understand and read the conversation of the leon.2.Ability objectives: a) The Ss can use the sentence pattern of talking in telephone.b) The Ss can use the pattern to expre their thoughts in the proper scene.3.Emotion objective: By completing the task, the Ss increase their interest and set up self-confidence in language study.

II.Difficult Points The students can use the sentence pattern to chat with others and can make simple dialogues.

III.Teaching Methods

1.communicative teaching method 2.Audio-visual teaching method 3.Task-based teaching method

IV.Teaching Tools

Pictures, ppt

V. Teaching Time 45 minutes

VI.Teaching Proce

Step 1. Warming up a) Free talk

T：How are you? S：I‟m fine.Thank you.

T：What‟s the weather like today? S：It‟s sunny.

b) Review the new words and phrases in this unit, such as “sweep the floor” “wash the clothes”.

Step 2. Presentation a) First, show some pictures and give the primary form of verb phrases at the same time.

Then show the present participle of the words.

1 泰州学院外国语学院 09英教

（五）学号：09952014 张茜

For example, the teacher shows a picture and gives the primary form “read a book”.Then show the present participle “reading a book”.b) Second, give the form of present participle

c) Third, show pictures and ask Ss talk with her and guide Ss to use these sentences pattern “what are you doing? I‟m …/We‟re …”.

For example, “what are you doing? I‟m reading a storybook”.

d) After presentation, ask Ss “what we have learnt today?” and give them five

minutes to discu together.Then sum up: 1.the sentence pattern “what are you doing? I‟m …/We‟re …”.

2.Be (am/is/are) + 动词ing 用来表示正在发生的事和进行的动作，这种表达形式就是现在进行时。动词ing形式就是现在分词

Step 3.Drills (Task time)

Task 1: Say out and spell First, ask Ss to say out primary form and present participle of these words and spell them.For example, show the word „stand‟, the Ss should read first, then say out „standing‟ and spell it „s-t-a-n-d-i-n-g‟.

Task 2: Make a telephone call Design a real situation about calling and let Ss work in pairs to make a telephone call like this: A: Hello, is that…? B: Yes.A: What are you doing now? B: I‟m…

Task 3. Read and translate Give the Ss some incomplete sentences and ask them to fill in the blanks by using the sentences pattern and phrases.

Task 4. Play a game The game is „look and gue‟.The teacher asks one student to draw in front of the stage and do the corresponding actions.Other students will gue what he/she is doing now.

Step 4. Consolidation and extension

a) Fill in the blanks, then answer Ask Ss to fill in the blanks and then answer questions like this: T: What are you doing ? S1: I‟m…

T: What is your English teacher doing? S1: He/She is…

b) Find and say

2 泰州学院外国语学院 09英教

（五）学号：09952014 张茜

Show a picture about a park and ask Ss work in group to point out what are they doing and use sentences we learnt today.For example, Susan and Sam are running.

Step 5. Homework 1.Copy the new words in Part B.2.Write about the pictures in Part C.3.Review some other verbs.

Step 6. Blackboard design

Unit 6

running

swimming sweeping

What are you doing?

I‟m …/We‟re

cleaning 3

Unit 9 Teaching Grammar Teaching aims:

1.Let the students understand the role of grammar in language learning. 2.Make the students know the knowledge of Grammar presentation 3.Let the students comprehend what is practice and ways to practice. Teaching focus and difficult points: 1.The knowledge of grammar presentation 2.The understanding of ways to practice 3.How to use the knowledge mentioned above correctly.Teaching procedures: Step1: Lead-in

The teacher: Good moring, everyone .The students: Good moring ,Mi wang.The teacher:We all know that grammar plays an important part in language learning, rignt? The students: Yes.The teacher:Ok, today we are going to learning something about grammar.look at our computer please,we are going to learn it from these aspects:1.The role of grammar in language learning 2.Grammar presentation 3.Grammar practice Step2:The role of grammar in language learning

(1) discu the five different views about the role of grammar in language learning, ask some students choose which one he/she prefers.(2) Introduce some profeional views Step3: Grammar presentation (1)Introduce three ways of presenting grammar in the claroom: The deductive method the inductive method and the guided discovery method .Step4: teach the three methods in details..The deductive method (1)What is deduction: reasoning from general principles to a particular case

(2)The deductive method relies on reasoning, analysing and comparing.(3)An example noticed; 2.The inductive method (1)Induction: method of logical reasoning which obtains or discovers general laws from particular facts or examples 归纳法

(2)The teacher provides authentic language data and induces the learners to realise grammar rules without any form of explicit explanation.It is believed that the rules will become evident if students are given enough appropriate examples.(3)instance-based: T may elicit the grammar rule from students based on sufficient instances/examples.

3.The guided discovery method (1) introduce the different aspects from the inductive method (2) Two key theoretical iues related to the method (3) Pennington’s (2002) 4C approach to grammar teaching Step5: grammar practice (1) what is practice (2)Two categories of practice Step5:

Activity: Task 4 p.110 Discu in pairs or in groups the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical practice Step6：Conclusion 1.The role of grammar in language learning: Generally speaking, Chinese EFL learners need a certain degree of mastery of English grammar.However, it should be noted that learning grammar itself is not the ultimate goal of learning English.2.2.Three ways of presenting/ teaching grammar: the deductive method, the inductive method, and the guided discovery method.Each has merits and drawbacks.The best way is to vary methods in different situations.3.Ur (1996) suggests that a good presentation of grammar should include both oral and written and both form and meaning.Plenty of contextualised examples are neceary; visual materials are helpful; use

of complex terminology should be avoided for young learners; inductive and discovery method should be used for those structures that can be easily perceived by the learners; for complex structures it is better to teach the rule explicitly and deductively.

4.Mechanical practice and meaningful practice of grammar have both advantages and disadvantages.Two types of practice can be combined.Using prompts (pictures, mimes, tables, charts, key words, created situations) has proved to be an effective way of grammar practice.

学本高考

英语教案

使用时间：2015/10-8

语法填空教案

授课教师：胡丽芳

授课班级：41

课型：复习课

一、教学内容：
语法填空技巧点拨

二、教学内容所在单元描述：本节教学内容属于英语试卷第2部分 ,体现了对高三学生的语法要求。

三、单元学习目标：达到高考大纲所要求的答卷能力

四、本节学习目标：掌握技巧，提高做题能力。

五、教学过程：

（一）、组织候课：

大屏幕出示内容如下：1.坐姿端正，注意力集中；

2.精神饱满，充满信心；

3.准备好红、黑笔，笔记本，错题本，字典

4.部分知识树

注意：知识树出示时间不能过短，适当解读；
检查落实

（二）、辅助环节（3分钟）

1、导入语：同学们，今我们来讲高考试卷中二卷部分的语法填空部分。

2、板书课题：

注意：讲导入语同步板题，书写工整，占位准确

3、出示目标：掌握考试中的常见语法，提高水平。

4、出示自读指导: 大屏幕出示内容如下 1.时间：8分钟

2．内容：自学资料

3.方式：出声背记；
如有不懂的问题，举右手询问

4.标准：达到熟记的程度

5.检查方式：闭卷考试

（三）、先学环节（18分钟）

1．请后进生朗读材料，了解材料难易程度。

预案：偏难，首先领读，正音，重要知识点讲解；
难易适中，自学

2.指导学生按照自读指导要求认真自学，教师巡视了解学情和自学进度。 3.统计自学完成情况，准备组织检测 4.组织检测：（1）请同学们收拾书桌，只保留黑、红笔。

（2）出示自读检测指导：时间：10分钟

方式：闭卷考试

要求：不看书、不讨论、不抄袭

审清题干

规范作答

1 学本高考

英语教案

使用时间：2015/10-8

字迹清晰

书写工整

看谁得满分！！！

（3）发卷，2问。没有试卷的同学请举右手；
试卷缺印或字迹不清晰的同学请举右手（4）开始答题

预案：1.学生做题迅速，提前进入下一环节。

2.学生为在规定时间内完成，统计学情，多余5人，延长2分钟；
少于等于5人，记入日清名单，不再等待。

（四）、后教环节（15分钟）

1.同桌互改，出示评分标准：每题1分，未在规定范围内答题，不得分

出示答案

2.统计学情：满分人数

优秀人数

不及格人数 3.自查自纠：出示自查自纠指导：时间：3分钟

方式：运用6步自查法自查自纠

可以查阅自学资料和字典

可以同桌讨论

标准：学会做错的题目

找到每道题的考点，并归纳句型（注：考察自学材料中背记内容，不须讲解）

（五）、当堂训练环节（30分钟）

1、请学生收拾书桌，只保留黑笔。

2、出示巩固拓展检测指导：时间：15分钟测试语法填空知识点,

方式；
闭卷考试

要求：不看书、不讨论、不抄袭

审清题干，规范答题

字迹清晰，书写工整

抓紧时间，写完必做题，请写拔高题

3、发卷2问

4、开始答卷

5、时间到，统计完成情况，将为完成必做题的同学记入日清名单 预案：如果时间紧张，删减题目，缩短时间；

如果时间充裕，收卷后，给学生时间整理笔记

（六）、后教环节（15分钟）

1.同桌互改，出示评分标准：每题1分，未在规定范围内答题，不得分

出示答案

2.统计学情：满分人数

优秀人数

不及格人数 3.自查自纠：出示自查自纠指导：时间：3分钟

方式：运用6步自查法自查自纠

可以查阅自学资料和字典

可以同桌讨论

标准：学会做错的题目

找到每道题的考点，并归纳句型（注：考察自学材料中背记内容，不须讲解）

（七）、回归环节（5分钟）

1、请学生回顾知识点。

2、再次出示学习目标，指导学生对照目标找差距。

3、宣布日清名单，请大课间到办公室找老师，去之前请准备好回答3个问题：本节课哪里没达标；
为什么没达标；
以及本节重要知识点复述

4、布置明天早读的朗读任务：复习本节自学材料；
预习下节课自学材料

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